Book Review: Leading Change by John P. Kotter Essay

Leading Change by John P. Kotter. Harvard Business School Press, 1996. In light of the increasing rate of change in the business environment due to factors such as technological advances and globalization, the need to be able to make successful transformations within an organization becomes more imperative than ever before. In Leading Change, Kotter identifies an eight-step guide for making successful organization changes. These eight steps stem from avoiding common mistakes made during organizational change efforts seen in the past , such as: too much complacency; failing to create a powerful guiding coalition; underestimating the power of vision; under-communicating the vision; permitting obstacles to block a new vision; failing to create short term wins; declaring a victory too soon; and neglecting to anchor changes firmly into the organizational culture. To avoid these mistakes, leaders of an organization requiring changes should consider the following steps: 1. Establishing a sense of urgency 2. Creating a guiding coalition 3. Developing a vision and strategy 4. Communicating the change vision 5. Empowering broad-based action 6. Generating short-term wins 7. Consolidating gains and producing more change 8. Anchoring new approaches into the culture In establishing a sense of urgency , it is hoped that a leader of change will be able to direct stakeholders’ drive towards a common purpose and reduce  complacency. Common causes of complacency include : the absence of a crisis, low overall performance standards, wrong performance measurement indexes, too much happy talk from management, and lack of sufficient performance feedback from external sources. It is suggested that a leader creates a sense of purpose allowing weaknesses to be exposed, setting performance targets that are too high, analyze current opportunities and highlight the organizations inability to pursue them, and cut-down on the â€Å"happy talk† and listen to disgruntled customers. Very often, committees of employees devoted to making organizational change are ineffectual because they do not have the any influential, senior managers who can make changes happen and reinforce the urgency of the committee’s purpose to all levels. Kotter suggests careful selection of committee members to include senior management and influential people, with care taken to avoid those employees he labels â€Å"egos† and â€Å"snakes† (i.e. those employees whose egos may take precedence over the committees agenda and those people who may undermine the trust necessary to build strong committee relationships) By developing a vision, a leader creates â€Å"a picture of the future with some implicit or explicit commentary on why people should strive to create that future.† (p. 68) It not only clarifies direction but helps in motivating those people who will be affected and/or implementing change. Kotter gives examples of good and bad visions and suggests that a perfect vision should be clear and simple enough to explain within five minutes. A vision should also inspire people to force people out of their comfort zones, it should be challenging but attainable, and usually takes advantage of fundamental trends such as globalization or technological changes. In communicating the change vision, Kotter argues that in this day of information overload, talk of vision and strategy takes up only a small fraction of employee time and the ideas are often lost. Using analogies, repetition and the use of multiple forums for conveying change vision will help employees to understand and remember the ideas. Clear concise language is a must. To empower employees for broad-based action enables much more flexibility within an organization to adapt to a changing environment. Barrier to empowerment however exist in i) the organizational structure where resources are so fragmented that timely delivery of objectives is nearly impossible , ii) the skills of employees, iii) systems of the organization such as HR systems which advocate antiquated measures of performance which contradict new changes, iv) supervisors who are reluctant to change from the traditional command-and-control style of management. Despite the long-term nature of many organizational changes, Kotter suggests that the generation of short-term wins is of utmost importance and not necessarily at the expense of long-term benefits. He cites examples of CEOs who have implemented long term change initiatives but the failure to create short-term wins and tangible benefits made stakeholders impatient resulting in disenchantment. He reinforces the clear difference between management and leadership and their importance in the pursuit of short-term and long term goals (leadership being more long-term vision and strategy-oriented, management being more concerned with the pursuit goals in the immediate future). The achievement of short-term goals not only reinforces that scarifies made for long-term goal achievement are paying off. They also help to reward change agents and undermine cynics/anchors to change, they build momentum and can help fine-tune vision and strategies. After a short-term win, Kotter warns that it is all too tempting to relax and even regress in some cases back to old ways. All momentum of change is lost. To be able to consolidate gains and keep producing more change, he suggests that management increase urgency levels, and learn to understand and appreciate that interdependencies with in the organization dictate that when changes are made in one area, they often require further changes to be made in other areas or departments. Once changes have been made, it is then important to anchor them into the corporate culture. It is observed that culture is not easily manipulated so this should be done when all changes have been made. Changing â€Å"the way we do  things around here† is imperative so that regression to old practices is not experienced. To summarize, Kotter reinforces that an increasingly changing business environment is forcing decisions to be made quicker and organizations to become more flexible to external changes than ever before. Only with increased flexibility, teamwork and leaner organizations can a leader ever hope to make changes in response to these pressure. The leadership qualities of the change agents very important because they set the vision for others to follow. The importance of continual learning is also emphasized because leaders who are constantly changing themselves and going out of their comfort zones arguably are more able to leave those comfort zones in order to adapt to a changing environment.

My Summer Vacation Essay

The dream summer holiday of every individual merely comes one time in a life-time. In the summer of 2014 I had merely completed my first twelvemonth of college and my parents wanted to take me some where I’ll ever retrieve for my profound work. I had no hint of what their purposes were or what to even anticipate from them. My parents had invited merely about all of our stopping points relations and household friends to come along and observe the juncture with us. Majority of those that came brought gifts and money to promote me to make good. Of class this made me the most thrilled individual in the universe. because I non merely had household and friends over to observe but they besides spent the dark over for the trip my parents had put together to take us on. The undermentioned forenoon my Father woke everyone up at 2oclock in the forenoon to acquire situated and hit the route for the airdrome by 3oclock. How dry they had everything planned out from the bathroom clip to the seating in the vehicles. But yet each and every clip I pampered the inquiry in their caputs as to where we were traveling they ne'er answered me. Anxious to cognize I was. so one began believing of all the possibilities of the topographic points they’d see traveling. I began to acquire drowsy from how early I woke up and all the wonder running through my venas. After acquiring to the airdrome at 4oclock our flight eventually left at 6:45am and we arrived at our finish into Fort Lauderdale. Florida. We collected our bags and was on our journey one time once more this clip it had felt as if we had been driving everlastingly. I had woken up to shrieks and shouting from about everyone around me. yet I still had no hint as to what was traveling on. As my pa was seeking to happen a parking topographic point I started to look out the window in hunt of any hints that could assist me calculate out where precisely we were. Once we pasted the entryway my eyes blew up when I saw the words Carnival Cruise Lines. After seeing all the commercials with all the celebrations that occur. all the celebrated people that appear in individual. the astonishing games and household activities. the theater and nutrient that was on board. this was so the topographic point I would give the universe to travel to. When asked by my parents how I liked my gift. I became lost for words and could merely smile for how happy and filed with joy I was.

Melanoma

Breakthroughs in medicine are occurring at a more predictable rate in the 21st century. This is due to technology and also the glut of information that is due to decades of research in the area of biology and medicine. Still, there are some medical conditions and illnesses that still puzzle the medical community and the public. One of these is melanoma a type of cancer.This study will look into the basic definition of this sickness. This paper will also address the current status and future standing of the illness and provide information as to what will be the next possible steps in curing the disease and the future of melanoma treatment.MelanomaThis disease is a type of skin cancer but it is not just an ordinary kind of cancerous growth but it is actually, â€Å"†¦the most serious type of skin cancer† (Melanoma.com, 2007). The main cause of melanoma is too much exposure to ultraviolet radiation such as in the case of sun bathers and those who just crave to have that bron ze look and then go lie under intense UV rays courtesy of tanning booths.This type of disease is prevalent because this is a nation of sun worshippers, meaning people in this country just love to bask under the ultraviolet glow of sunlight just to get that much sought after tan. Now, melanoma is on the rise and the faster growing cancer in the United States of America.It is a serious problem not just because of its frequency but also because it is very aggressive. In fact, â€Å"The median survival of patients is generally limited to 6 t 10 months, and it has not been significantly improved since the 1970s† (University of Michigan Health System, 2007).But according to the National Cancer Institute (â€Å"NCI†) this type of cancer can also occur in the eye and is called intraocular or ocular melanoma (NCI, 2007). But the organ of choice – so to speak – for the disease is the human skin which is the largest organ of the human body. It is not only because of the large surface area but more on the fact that melanoma develops first in the skin cell called melanocytes.Melanocytes are skin cells found in the skin that is in charge in the production of melanin. Melanin’s main purpose is to give skin its color and explains why those who live in different environs e.g. too much sun, have a different skin color than those who only receive minimal amounts of sunlight throughout the year.Another major purpose of melanin is to protect deeper layers of the skin from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet or UV rays. Due to prevalence of the disease in those who love to get deep tan lying motionless in beaches or those frequenting tanning booths there is a consensus that too much exposure to UV light is the major cause of melanoma.When a person spends a considerable amount of time under the sun, melanocytes are worked into a frenzy – they work extra hard to produce melanin. This increased activity when done frequently causes this partic ular cell to suddenly behave abnormally. When this happens, Stage 1 cancer has already occurred. Yet, no one has been able to pinpoint the exact mechanism or the exact chemical process that cause this abnormality. The dermatology research team in the University of Michigan asserts remarked that, â€Å"The identification of the molecular basis of melanoma progression [†¦] are largely unknown† (Soengas, 2007).Current StatusIn the early stages of melanoma, it is highly treatable but there are limited options for those who are already in the advanced stages (Medical News Today, 2007). There are bigger problems when it concerns this illness. Reacting to the aforementioned poor prognosis of those who are in the later stages of the disease, the University of Michigan research team gave the following findings, â€Å"A main contributor to this poor prognosis is an extreme resistance to standard modalities of anticancer treatment, ranging fro immuno, to radiao or chemotherapyâ₠¬  (Soengas, 2007).Future StandingThere are exciting developments though and one could be found in the laboratories of The Wistar Institute, an independent nonprofit biomedical research institution dedicated to discovering the causes and curse for major diseases including cancer. One of their researchers discovered that a substance called peptide exists in approximately 70 percent of melanomas but not in normal cells. Dorothee Herlyn the main proponent of this novel vaccine approach used the peptide to stimulate T cells in the body to attack the melanoma cells. Herlyn found out that a substantial proportion of melanoma patients, about 50 percent have killer T cells responding to the peptide and is very optimistic that in due time this new approach will be able to treat at least one third of all melanoma patients (Medical News Today, 2007).DiscussionAs mentioned earlier there are is still no hard evidence that will point to the exact cause of the disease on the molecular level. So f ar what is ascertain is the fact that too much exposure to UV rays are causing the melanocytes in the skin to grow abnormally and then becomes cancer causing.Prevention of course is better than seeking more expensive and emotionally draining cure especially when it comes to cancer. So experts suggest decreasing the amount of time under the harsh elements of the sun’s rays. Also, there is a serious need to be conscious of protecting one self from ultraviolet rays and this includes sun screen lotions, hats, working under the shade etc.But when cancer has already set in medical professionals are needed on the scene. There are at least four (4) major types of treatment (National Cancer Institute, 2007):Surgery – This includes removing the melanoma or removing cancer cells and some of the normal tissue around it. Lymphadenectomy is also an option wherein the lymph nodes are removed. Skin grafting is also part of this type of treatment.Chemotherapy – Cancer drugs are taken orally or injected into a vein so that it can enter the bloodstream and kill cancer cells. But due to the fact that melanoma is in the skin, basically outside the internal organs of the body this common cancer treatment has to be modified. The technique is called â€Å"hyperthermic isolated limb perfusion† where the flow of blood from the limb is inhibited through the use of tourniquet and thus anticancer drug can be put directly into the blood of the limb.Radiation Therapy – There are two types of radiation therapy – internal and external radiation therapy where the former uses high-energy x-rays while the latter uses radioactive substances sealed in catheters and then placed near the affected areas of the body.Biologic Therapy – This type of therapy finds ways to boos the body’s immune system so that it can fight the disease.There are also new types of treatment being tested in clinical trials. One is the aforementioned radical technique de veloped by Dorothee Herlyn of The Wistar Institute where she was able to coax T killer cells to attack melanoma and what a novel approach indeed.Works CitedMedical News Today. â€Å"Melanoma Research Progress Suggests Optimism for Future Cures.†Available from < http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/medicalnews.php?newsid=45539&nfid=rssfeeds> Accessed [20 April 2007].Melanoma.com. â€Å"What is Melanoma?† Available from Accessed [19 April 2007].Soengas, Maria. â€Å"Molecular Basis of Melanoma Progression and Drug Resistance.† University

Why Literatura by Mario Vargas - Summury Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Why Literatura by Mario Vargas - Summury - Essay Example e computer, can replace the books and provide the readers with all the excitement, pleasure and the inherent relationship that he develops with the concerned author as well as with the characters. According to the author, while speaking at the Royal Spanish Academy, Bill Gates had even said that his ultimate goal ‘is to put an end to paper and then to books’. Is it really that easy? Llosa says that even though the technology has restructured the priority areas of human race, the relevance and importance of literature can never lose its basic essence of providing people with the opportunity of creative imagination and at the same time, help them to understand the wider scope of human psychology through the experiences of other people. The very appeal of the literature lies on the fact that it not only provides the reader with an opportunity to grow and learn but it also goes beyond the concept of time and space. One can even go so far as to say that one can actually observe the changes or evolution because we have gleaned the process of evolving times through the literature. Indeed, Homer, Socrates, Tolstoy, Shakespeare are as important a figure today as any other contemporary writers. We understand them because we can identify ourselves in their writing. Another very important aspect of literature is that it provides the human race with the means to express their deepest feeling that facilitates platform for the future generations to learn and expand on the various facet of inter-related imagery or the real life situations that directly or indirectly may have considerable impact on other people. The books can inflame the emotions of the readers and they can also be the greatest source of inspiration for those who wish to look beyond the petty selfness of racism, prejudices and religious bigotry. The author is saddened by the fact that the reading habit in people has declined drastically, though women readers have increased. According to a survey in US in

Peer review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 15

Peer review - Essay Example In Psalm 106:3, God says, â€Å"Blessed are they who maintain justice, who constantly do what is right†. As a result, organizations have to ensure that they protect every employee from any violation of their human rights. In addition, the paper highlights the importance of training in fighting the vice. Educating employees about the problem is an effective approach in minimizing its occurrence (Cooper & Schindler, 2014). However, the paper has failed to focus on the importance of punishing individuals who perpetrate such actions at the workplace. Any person who harasses a colleague or a junior employee should face serious consequences. Besides losing their job, there should be further punitive measures taken. The practice would discourage employees from engaging in the practice. As a result, it will protect the image of the organization. In the event that the perpetrator of the practice is a supervisor, the organization may be viewed negatively (Abbott, Elkins, Phillips & Madera, 2014). The victim may feel that it provides an enabling environment for such activities. The organization can encourage such activities by tolerating people who disregard such policies (Buchanan, Settles, Hall, & O’Conner, 2014, p. 689). Abbott, J. L., Elkins, T. J., Phillips, J. S., & Madera, J. M. (2014). Attributing corporate responsibility for sexual harassment: The supervisory connection. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 55(4), 376-387. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1938965513511145 Buchanan, N. T., Settles, I. H., Hall, A. T., & O’Conner, R. C. (2014). A review of organizational strategies for reducing sexual harassment: Insights from the U.S. military. Journal of Social Issues, 70(4), 687-702.

Writing to Evaluate Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Writing to Evaluate - Essay Example The blog makes the life of Apple managers an easy time. The paper discusses the various categories found on 9 to 5 Mac blog. The paper also discusses the blog design as well as writing and the content found in the blog. Additionally, the paper outlines the history of the blog, its readers, creators, and followers. Discussion. History 9 to 5 Mac was established in 2001 when the launch and the announcement of iPhone was made. The launching and announcement was made at Paris apartment (Seth Weintaubs' residence). Weintraub supervising the work of Mac IT development while the wife secured a fellowship to further her studies in France. The blog was established to keep up with developments in technology and bring up a writing career that had gained ground at an IDG publication in Computer world. The team was joined by Mark Gurman when the logo of the blog was still a coffee mug. The blog then became a career in 2011 as soon as Weintraub stopped working with Fortune magazine. He started 9 t o 5Google.com and 9 to 5Toys.com. He continues interacting with additional reporters and editors. 9 to 5Forums.com with assistance from VanillaForums.com was started in 2012. It served as both community of vibrant users and systems of comment. Currently, has over five hundred thousand viewer daily. The other 9 to 5 sites do not have much traffic. According to the author, writing on issues of technology is a greater achievement. Author The author of the blog 9 to 5Mac is called Seth Weintraub. Seth Weintraub is an award winning blogger and journalist. He secured awards in Neal when he covered Apple and Goggle from 2007 to 2010. Developing the blog 9 to 5Mac was his hobby and favorite. In 2011, he decided to take blogging as his full time job. He added his followers to 9 to 5Google.com and 9 to 5Toys.com deals and gear site. Weitraub was an IT director of Global and web developer for various companies. He had experience in branding and multimedia agencies in New York, Madrid, Sydney, and Madrid before becoming a blogger and a publisher Reviews and tags. The reviewers of 9 to 5 review the blog for free. The blog always receive review units for free and comprehensive instructions on usage. The blog run reviews for software and hardware that seem interesting to the audience and worth appealing. The blog "9 to 5 Mac has tagged adobe, client, iPod, Macintosh, rumors, and server. Consequently, the blog tags administration, iwork, open directory, nano, and iphone. Affiliate linking. The blog uses affiliate links if possible. The blog runs software that increase the number of affiliate tags to any external linking as a mechanism to generate revenue. It uses the strategy of supporting the link y buying the products. 9 to 5Toys is news and shopping deals where they aim to post credible and original news on notable drop in price and new update, Delanewa.com, and stack Social. Design. The blog uses the Grunge style on the wall of their website. The blog has employed a bigge r trend in grunge design including the minimalist grunge, where the theme of the blog is minimal. The grunge elements are bigger and are more defines. The blog design is not messy. 9 to 5mac has a design style that has space for individual and creativity expression. Content and Objective. The blog has options for apple, IOS devices, Enterprise, tips, Apps, reviews, 9 to 5 Forums, and products. The blog sells Apple products to Gazelle. Some of the apple products that the blog advertises include iMac, Mac Mini, Mac Pro, Mac Book Air, iPads, iPod, iPhone, and other products such as Airport Base Station, and Apple Thunderbolt Displays. The site quotes the recommendation status and the time product was released. On the Enterprise section the

Present and evaluate the possible bank reforms emerging from the US Essay

Present and evaluate the possible bank reforms emerging from the US and the UK - Essay Example Now, when the crisis is within control and the economies of the US and the UK are showing signs of nascent recovery, the cries for reforms in the banking system are emerging from the affiliated concerns and institutions. Some of the proposed reforms are a step in the right direction. Still, all that is being said and done does not portend to achieve the expected results. Causes of the Banking Crisis The occurrence of crisis like situations within the US and the UK banking system owing to the embedded systemic weaknesses has been typically shocking in the current decade. Not to mention, the cost of such scenarios have been significantly high for the affected economies. Though, the causes and reasons impacting the banking system during the 2008-2009 recession have been to some extent, region specific. Still, some salient trends can be identified, that have been common to the UK and US banking system. First and foremost, the risky banking practices and the accompanying structural weakne sses in the financial system were bound to give way to a crisis like situation at some time or other (Turner 2008). ... It was an attitude of negligence on the part of the regulatory bodies that allowed the irresponsible bankers to manipulate an environment marred by ineffective market discipline (Turner 2008). This gave way to unsound corporate governance practices on the part of the banks and the customers who approached them for seeking loans. How Banking Crisis Contributed to Recession Actually experts have been predicting the collapse of the banking system much before the things went wrong. The unrealistic and unethical credit expansion by the American and the English financial institutions was a phenomenon that had been taking place since the last couple of years (Turner 2008). The irony was that even the Central Banks in the influenced countries failed to check this artificial credit expansion. All the instruments and mechanisms that facilitated this credit expansion were predominantly pegged on the real estate market in the US (Roberts 2008). As expected, as the real estate boom in the US came to a halt, the financial instruments backing it got worthless; giving was to caustic assets and the accompanying credit crunch that hit the world economy (Roberts 2008). The following oil price volatility made the things even worse (Turner 2008). Banking Reforms in the US The US government incorporated the lessons learnt from the subprime mortgage crisis into the envisaged banking reforms. These reforms not only intended to create new regulatory bodies with more teeth, but also planned to protect the interests of the customers. These reforms provided more power to the Federal Reserve thereby enabling it to better monitor the functioning of the financial institutions, and if required to takeover over a financial institution

Practicum Action Inquiry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Practicum Action Inquiry - Essay Example This collaborative research project will be established with ten teachers from 20 schools in the vicinity of the campus. Identification of learning goals, construction of success criteria as well as the provision of descriptive feedbacks are important practices used in classrooms that enhance the achievement of students. While operating under the assessment of learning theme, teachers will be trained on how to develop learning goals and criteria of success as stipulated in the curriculum. Teachers will also be trained on how to implement positively descriptive feedback. On the other hand, the student will be trained on positive peer and self-assessment. Descriptive feedback is a major constituent of the growing success initiative. Self, peer, and teacher feedback before and after the assessment is submitted to the main descriptive feedback strategy. These strategies will be introduced by this practicum into classrooms for education department for the growing success initiative. According to Biggley (2012), descriptive feedback strategies have been proved to increase student skill development and achievement effectively long after the learner finishes the course. The approach to future assessment techniques for teachers is highly influenced by these skills. All participants in the inquiry will enjoy the benefit of personal, professional learning. All participants will be familiar with evaluation and assessment process. As the process will be progressing through the semester, participants will find themselves actively lesson planning on issues involving growing success more so descriptive feedback (Caro-Bruce, 2008). Transition of teachers to assessment for learning instructional model requires teamwork with fellow teachers to ensure effective student learning and skill development. Before the collaborative inquiry was implemented, competency levels of teachers varied. Collaborative inquiry utilization will help teachers acquire training on

Changes made to New York State labor law due to social media, gender Essay

Changes made to New York State labor law due to social media, gender expression, and bullying - Essay Example Under the federal law of New York State, discrimination may occur when a person is treated differently in a manner that causes an adverse impact to an employee based on his age, gender, disability, sexual orientation amongst other forms of discrimination. New York State Labor Law on Social Media Social media affects most aspects of individuals including employees, and therefore, employers must be able to familiarize themselves with the legal ramifications or implications of their use by the employees. New York introduced legislation in 2012 that prohibited employers from delving into the social media account of would-be applicants for the employment opportunities in their firms or employees through the soliciting of social media accounts or requiring them to log into their accounts. New York State labor laws also protect employees from any disciplinary action or their employment from termination on account of activities done in the social media when they are off-duty. It is important to note that the labor law concerning labor law in New York is written in broad terms to prohibit the employers from discriminating against employees or job applicants for their lawful engagement in social media during non-working hours and outside the premises of the employer, though the engagement in social media may seem contrary to the employer’s interests, practices and policies. The New York Labor Law Section 201-d (2) (c) prohibits the discrimination of an employee for his participation in legal recreational activities outside the working hours and the recreational activities are defined as any lawful activity done at the leisure time for which an employee is not compensated but the employee only engages in it for recreational purposes.1 This section however has not adequately addressed whether social networking can be grouped as a recreational activity, and therefore an employee who engages in an activity that goes contrary to the business interest of the company wil l only be prosecuted by the courts on a case-by-case basis.2 New York State Labor Law on Gender Expression New York has enacted different legislation that protects employees who may suffer from the decisions of their employers due to discrimination based on gender. The labor laws of this state prohibits any employer from having considerations based on your gender at the time of hiring, promoting, transferring, setting wages or hours of work, or when firing any employee from duty. The prohibition against discrimination based on gender is enshrined in Title VII which is a federal law in New York State. This also covers sex discrimination against female employees that may arise from practices or policies that affect the female employees in a negative manner because of pregnancy, child birth and other medical conditions that usually affect females only. The New York State Human Rights Law also expressly prohibits discrimination based on pregnancy,3 and the Equal Pay Act is a federal law of New York State that requires that employers remunerate men and women equal pay for equal work done within the same or similar establishment.4 Two job descriptions can be deemed to be similar or the same if and when each job requires the same skills and

Probability and poker Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Probability and poker - Research Paper Example One of the common card games people engage in today is poker. It is played with a deck of fifty two cards. The ranks of a player’s cards and the combinations of these cards help determine the winner. In order to win big, players risk larger sums of money, hoping that they do not loose. Therefore, poker, just like any other gambling activity, is purely based on chance. In mathematics, one of the widely covered topics is probability, which is the study of the likelihood of an event occurring. For this reason, poker is directly related to this mathematical concept because outcomes are based on chance. Although most people question the importance of studying mathematics in school, the application of mathematical concepts in the real world are varied. Probability, which is a branch of mathematics, is one of the most used concepts in the world. This research aims at demonstrating how probability is used in gambling by focusing on the game of poker. For most poker players, there is strong belief in experience, skill and luck. Most players have an illusion of control in which a person beliefs he has the ability to understand and determine the outcome of uncertain events. Professional poker players are seen as those who have the ability to read their opponents with a high level of accuracy based on tiny or non-existent clues (Istrate, 55). Experienced players are those that have the ability to make accurate predictions, thereby increasing their chances of winning. In approaching the game of poker, most players look at their opponents to identify certain flaws or features that will help them to win the game. These flaws will tell them the weaknesses of their opponents, and thus capitalize on these weaknesses to win games. For this reason, players look at the position the opponents occupy on the table, their timings and pace, and the way they behave and move

Google's Strategy in 2012 Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Google's Strategy in 2012 - Case Study Example This research will begin with the statement that legal actions that are against Google have mainly originated from infringement as well as other issues that are associated with copyrights. Nonetheless, the concept of privacy in the internet world is progressively becoming unmanageable and ability that Google has of recording the habits of internet users and broadcasting the information to the people on the internet has to lead to the calls for new laws that are more stringent. The external macro economic environment that Google exists in encompasses all the outside firms and forces, which have a possible interest or effect on the ability that the firm has to achieve its goals. Despite the fact that Google is an online business, macroeconomics factors greatly affect the broadcast of the company in several regions such as China, which has restricted the use of Google and in some cases unavailable. Google has enjoyed freedom from government interferences since it was established in 1998 since it does not fall under one government jurisdiction. The software that Google utilizes is proprietary and is only restricted by particular court orders in various countries. However, this might change in the days to come with the introduction of a Federal Internet Sales Tax Law in the United States. The fact that Google has already established a brand name that the users have been able to trust is one of the strengths of the associated with the company. The services offered by this company are dependable, reliable and relatively fast compared to other search engines.

How policies and procedures help children Essay Example for Free

How policies and procedures help children Essay Discuss how policies and procedures help children and young people and their families whilst the child is being looked after. In this essay I am going to discuss 6 policies and their procedures whist a child is being looked after. I am going to expand on why this is important for the child parent or legal guardian and also why they are put in place. Firstly I am going to discuss the Safeguarding Policy. Safeguarding Policy Safeguarding is the policy that describes the function of protecting adults and children from abuse or neglect. It is an important shared priority of many public services, and a key responsibility of local authorities.Safeguarding relates to the need to protect certain people who may be in vulnerable circumstances. These are people who may be at risk of abuse or neglect, due to the actions (or lack of action) of another person usually their parent or carer. In these cases, it is critical that services work together to identify people at risk, and put in place interventions to help prevent abuse or neglect, and to protect Safe guarding helps make sure the people whom are protecting the children are correctly checked for example a CRB is mandatory when looking after a vulnerable child. What is a DBS check and why is it needed? Since March 2002, the Criminal Records Bureau has enabled employers to check the criminal records of employees and potential employees, in order to ascertain whether or not they are suitable to work with vulnerable adults and children. For individuals working in certain positions, a valid DBS disclosure is a legislative requirement. The Disclosure and Barring Service also manage lists of individuals who are barred from working with children and adults. New safeguarding regulations introduced in October 2009 place an obligation on employers, social services and professional regulators to notify the DBS of relevant information. This obligation ensures that individuals who pose a threat to vulnerable groups can be barred from working with them. It also makes it a criminal offence for these individuals to apply to work with these groups and for employers to knowingly employ them. This makes sure the child is safe whilst being cared for by a  professional or a carer whom isnt their parent or legal guardian. It is also important so the parents or carers know the child is in safe hands whilst being cared for out of their control. Recording and Handling Information Policy Recording and handling data is important when looking after children for example whilst a child is in school all their documents must be kept confidential in case any of the other children or irrelevant staff members read or disclose any confidential information. The only time data or information about child should be revealed is if the child is at risk or in danger. Then the relevant person can inform the carer or relevant person to make sure the child is kept safe. Keeping childrens medical records safe is also important in case they ever need reviewed or used in case of emergency. Health and Safety Policy This policy promotes making sure the child is kept safe and in a safe environment for example there are a few policies put in place to make sure this is possible. They are RIDDOR  (Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations) This is an assessment that must be put in place and a report filed upon if a child is injured in school or any other official place of work. For parents or carers this makes sure it is dealt with and supported correctly it also keeps children safe. COSHH (Control of Substances Hazardous to Health) This is similar to the RIDDOR policy I have expanded on above. All people taking care of the child must make sure all harmful substances are kept away from the child to prevent serious or injury or death. Risk Assessments. Risk assessments are carried out everywhere a child is looked after to make sure the environment and building is safe for the child to live or be taught in. This is a mandatory legal document especially in a school or care environment. This could put a parent or carers mind at risk knowing there child is safe. Health Policy It is a legal requirement that all children must get free healthcare throughout their childhood and adolescent life if needed for example medical care, dentistry care and mental support if needed. This helps support the child so they can stay healthy and get the right support they need. It also helps the parent so they don’t need to worry about the financial side as all this support is free. Education Policy Education is mandatory until you are 18 as of 2012. This is so children don’t fall out of education at 16. You can go down many routes when leaving school for example college, sixth form, training or apprentiships. There is also a legal standard of education in the United Kingdom that must be followed, there are 224 policies within 1 policy itself for education ranging from Reducing violent and gun crime to Reforming qualifications and the curriculum to better prepare pupils for life after school. Having policies in place makes sure that children get the right standard of education and that parents and carers can go out to work whilst their children are at school to make sure they can give their children the best standard of life. It also sets the child up for a good standard of life with good qualifications and life skills. Play Policy When children are in education especially primary school it is a legal requirement that they get break time and toys and equipment to use during this time. The best way for a child to learn is using exploratory learning and learning by trial and error. This is how a child learns life and social skills from a young age. When a child starts school this also gets them well adjusted to letting go from spending all their time with there parent or carer. Every Child Matters 1 Be Healthy 2 Stay Safe 3 Enjoy and Achieve 4 Make a Positive Contribution 5 Achieve Economic Wellbeing I believe that all they above policies shape a childs life and with the right guidance from parents, carers and education you can shape a decent outcome and setup for a childs life and development. Refrences. http://www.every-child-matters.org.uk/Framework_5_key_outcomes http://www.theguardian.com/politics/education http://www.playengland.org.uk/resources/national-play-policy.aspx https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/health-and-safety-advice-for-school https://www.gov.uk/disclosure-barring-service-check/overview

Effectiveness of a Direct Adaptive Control Algorithm

Effectiveness of a Direct Adaptive Control Algorithm In this research, the authors study the effectiveness of applying a direct adaptive control algorithm for both vibration suppression and damage detection. Combining vibration suppression and damage detection in civil engineering structures allows the implementation of a more effective control system since the model reference represents more accurately the real structure. The adaptive algorithm chosen in this study is the sliding mode and model reference control algorithm, with an online identification procedure based on tracking error. In order to test the effectiveness of the method, a numerical investigation is presented, performed to a MDOF shear building. The study successfully uses the adaptive control algorithm to damage detection and vibration suppression of the MDOF shear-type structure aforementioned. The study first presents the governing relations of a general structural system, such as the equations of motion and its state space representation. Then, it presents the control canonical forms and the transformations that are useful to the application of the model reference adaptive control. These canonical form allow the separation from assignable dynamics and internal dynamics that are not affected from control input, and are applicable to both SISO and MIMO cases. It shows that a correct selection of a reduced measure of the state variables can guarantee exact output reference tracking. After this, the control strategy via sliding mode control and model reference control are presented. The reference model is defined in a way that the system response approaches or tracks the desired reference response. The slide mode control objective is to make the output to track a desired behavior, which means that the output error zero. This goal is achieved by sliding along a line, defined b y a weighting parameter that defines the convergence rate. The control law is therefore defined in a way that the states in canonical form match the sliding line. In this study, the online identification procedure is based on the asymptotic convergence to zero of the tracking errors and the stability of the method is proved by showing asymptotic stability convergence based on Lyapunov function. The numerical investigation performed in a 3DOF shear type structure. The reference model and the actual model differ in damping ratio values. Not much detail is given regarding the tools used during the numerical investigation. In the numerical investigation it is evaluated the performance of collocated and noncollocated control cases. It is concluded that the model reference control is accurate in the output tracking and is successful in suppressing the excessive vibrations, and is effective in the identification of changes in the model, showing it can deal with changes in the plant due to damage. The numerical stability of the method is verified, and the on-line identification effectiveness is evaluated. It is concluded that large control efforts are required during abrupt changes in the plant parameters. The results are not compared to any other adaptive algorithm, so it is difficult to measure its effectiveness. The research is important in the sense that brings the concept of adaptive control by applying model reference adaptive algorithm with sliding mode control to civil engineering structures. It confirms the effectiveness of the method in tracking the system parameters, even after abrupt changes happen, and it is successful in controlling the response while remaining numerical stable. However, that are some weaknesses in this paper, such as: the loading type/duration/scheme applied to the structure is not presented. Therefore, the results of the research are difficult to be reproduced in order to expand the knowledge in the area. The results obtained by this algorithm implementation are not compared to others non-adaptive and adaptive methods. Consequently, it is difficult to assess the extent of the effectiveness of the method. The model reference adaptive control and the sliding mode control theoretical aspect is somehow confusing and lacking completeness, with too many direct citatio ns that introduce a fragmentation in the text.

Technology impact on social interactions

Technology impact on social interactions Technology can have positive and negative impact on social interactions With the proliferation of technologies that are able to overcome the obstacles of time and space (e.g., airplanes, cars, the Internet), one would think that these tools would be used to gain an understanding of other cultures, meet people all over the world, maintain and strengthen familial relationships, communicate effectively with others, and help people to become more socially adept. However, some technological advances cause people to be distracted, overly stressed, and increasingly isolated. Many people are involved in an abundant number of relationships through technology, but sometimes the quantity of these associations leaves people feeling qualitatively empty. Obviously, technology has had a profound impact on what it means to be social. Society is likely on the cusp of a social revolution, during which it will be important to redefine socially appropriate and acceptable behaviors (with regard to digital or virtual interaction). We are at a point in history where very few people have given critical thought to new social realities created by technology and what those realities mean for the individual and society. In this section we closely examine a few social technologies that influence leisure. The section first looks at virtual communities, social networking sites, and today’s communication tools. Then we critically reflect on gaming and television. Think about how each technology affects your social life and social skills. Keep in mind that these are only a few of the technologies that may affect you socially. A comprehensive list is not feasible here. A study of students and information technology found that 85 percent of undergraduates surveyed used social networking sites (Salaway et al., 2008) (see figure 8.2). Many of the respondents reported using such sites daily. Figure 8.3 indicates how undergraduate students use social networking sites. This report found indications that use of these sites is increasing yearly. Let us now look critically at whether this trend is positive. The use of social networking sites has both positive and negative consequences. It is amazing how someone can find a long-lost friend through a social networking site, enabling them to reconnect. In a society where people have become quite mobile and family and friends are often geographically separated, it is convenient to keep in touch through technology. However, one need not look far to find problems associated with social networking sites. There is a lively debate about whether Internet addictions are real. To me it appears to be a real problem (perception is often reality in a social context) with which people have to grapple. Some assert that these Web sites contributed to cheating on significant others, often leading to divorce. People have been fired from their jobs or put under pressure because they use these sites at work or because something is posted on a site that undermined the person’s professional standing. Although divorce and loss of employment are serious issues, perhaps they are not as common as other problems that have the potential to stem from social networking sites. Narcissism—excessive interest in one’s appearance and in oneself—is sometimes manifested on social networking sites. These Web sites have been found to be an avenue for people to display their narcissistic traits online (Buffardi Campbell, 2008). I often wonder whether people use these sites to display their popularity to the world rather than use them as a vehicle to develop meaningful relationships. Creating meaningful relationships is often about sharing our lives with others, and technology can allow us to do so through photos, videos, text, and music. In conducting research for my doctoral dissertation, I looked at how eight senior citizens used technology and how it affected their lives. My hope was to find that they used technology to stay in touch with friends, family, and people with similar interests. Although the participants did use e-mail to stay in touch with family and friends, almost all of the study participants talked about how vapid chat rooms and discussion boards seemed to be. Most had tried chatting a few times and then gave up because they viewed it as a waste of time (similar reasons were given by undergraduates in the ECAR study who did not use social networking sites). However, one participant was a chat room monitor for a fantasy baseball site. As he spent more time in that chat room he began to realize that it was not as shallow as he first imagined. Pe ople were in that virtual community because of a shared or common interest. Gradually he got to know people and care about their lives. He was eventually able to meet some of these new, online friends in person and said they connected as if they had known each other for years. While working on my dissertation I visited many chat rooms and discussion boards that catered to older adults. After visiting many such sites, I began to be discouraged because of the inane nature of many of the conversations. However, I stumbled on one online discussion board in which two World War II veterans wrote about their experiences in the war. They also lamented the fact that where they lived, there were no more veterans of that war left. They felt alone and isolated, but this chat room was a forum where they fit in again. They were able to share similar interests and experiences. Perhaps overcoming a sense of isolation is one of the greatest features of online communities and virtual worlds. Someone might feel like an outcast in her own community or family but might find someone online with similar hobbies, pursuits, and interests. Consider someone who enjoys photography as a serious leisure pursuit. This person would be able to share that passion with people all over the world by using the Internet and its powerful tools (e-mail, video chat, discussion boards, online video, family Web sites). However, simply sharing common interests and pursuits with people through technology does not necessarily have a positive impact on social skills and social development. Gaming and Social Development Gaming is an instance where you may encounter potentially serious social setbacks. I lead a group of Boy Scouts who share a love of a certain online virtual world game. This game seems to be all they talk about. When given other opportunities for deep, respectful, meaningful conversation, these boys are sometimes rather inept. Although linking their online gaming to poor social skills might be spurious, studies show negative social impacts of some video games. One study tested whether high exposure to video games increased aggression over time. It was found that playing violent video games is a significant risk factor for later physical aggression in both Japan and the United States—for boys and girls (Anderson et al., 2008). However, linking video games to poor social skills and behaviors often misses the bigger picture. People might participate in other activities (take football, for example) in which the social problems that arise from the activity may be the same or even worse than those of gaming. Evidently it is not enough to simply blame the medium. In fact, in many instances, gaming may aid in relationship building. The 13th Annual MediaWise Video Game Report Card (Walsh Gentile, 2008) indicated that 75 percent of gamers play with other people. Since my family received a Wii as a gift, we have spent countless hours of enjoyment playing together. Naturally, overindulgence in this one activity would have deleterious results, but the limited time we do spend playing together seems to strengthen our family. Television and Social Development Television is another technology that has mixed reviews with regard to social skills and social lives. Some researchers suggest that spending a limited amount of time watching wholesome programs can strengthen families and friendships. Others believe that television contributes to the downfall of social values in this country. It does seem that many people spend less time with others in their community than they do with the people they watch daily on television. Television tends to be a passive medium, which requires little skill and thought on our part (although some programming bucks this trend). Therefore, television provides little opportunity for meaningful interaction while watching. Watchers simply sit there and ingest what is presented to them without having to respond or react to another person. Obviously this can have serious effects on people’s social skills because viewers are not practicing how to relate to and deal with other people. Exposure to what is viewed on television can have some other serious effects on people’s social lives. For example, exposure to television shows with sexual content may increase the chance of teen pregnancy (see figure 8.4) (Chandra et al., 2008). Furthermore, when some people see violence, sex, and all manner of lasciviousness on television, they may be prone to mimic the behavior and think that it is acceptable. Were everyone to copy the social behaviors portrayed on television, our society would lack morals, and many levels of individuals’ lives would be destroyed. It is apparent that technology has the potential to harm or enhance your social skills and social life. The key is to analyze how technology affects you socially. Do technologies help you build positive, meaningful relationships, or do technologies hinder this process? Are you better able to communicate, listen, and share because of the technologies in your life? Do you use technologies to improve your relationships and build new ones? Are you letting a few choice people know who you are and what you contribute to this world, or are you merely distracting yourself with shallow pursuits? Does technology increase or decrease your concern for others, your compassion for others, and your desire to serve them? Such are the critical questions regarding technology and social development. http://www.buzzle.com/articles/positive-effects-of-technology-on-society.html Positive Effects of Technology on Society Technology runs in the veins of society. It is the fuel that drives our lives. It is an integral part of daily life. It has definitely benefited society. It has brought luxury in the life of every common man. Automation brought about by technology has saved human effort and time to a large extent. It has brought distant places closer and simplified information access. It has made the world a smaller place to live in. Let us look at some of the important areas, where technology has brought a positive change. Automation of Processes in the Industry and the Household: Technology has automated many of the critical processes in the industry as well as the household. Imagine the amount of labor that must have been involved in industrial processes when the concept of automation did not exist. Electronic gadgets have entered homes of the common man to rescue him from the boredom of daily chores. Imagine the amount of time people must be spending doing household chores during the time there w ere no machines and household appliances. Its better not imagined. Todays is the age of robotics. Machines can learn, adopt new things and perform tasks with near-human efficiency. Changed Modes of Transport: The automobile industry and technology are interwoven. Time has witnessed this industry evolve from mechanical scooters to automated aircraft. Animals were the only modes of transport in the olden days. Technology was the driving force behind the creation and design of the modern-day automobiles. Bicycles evolved into scooters and sports bikes. The idea of having four-wheeled modes of transport gave rise to the creation of cars. Modes of air and water transport came up, thanks to technology. Reduced Risk to Human Life: Machines have automated many crucial industrial processes. Machines are now taking up mundane jobs that were once done by human workers. Technology has evolved to an extent where machines can perform tasks that are not feasible for man, either because they are ri sky or life-threatening or because they are beyond human capacity. The use of advanced technologies like robotics and artificial intelligence has proven to be helpful in life-risking endeavors like mining and space exploration. Data Management and Information Retrieval: Computer technology, needless to say, has changed the face of the world. Computers can store, organize and manage huge amounts of data. They can process large amounts of information. Computers have given rise to the software industry, one of the most progressive industries of the world. The Internet that seeded from computer networking concepts is the most effective communication platform and the largest information base existing today. Impact on the Entertainment and Advertising Industries: The Internet has brought a positive change to the entertainment and advertising industries. Over the Internet, advertisements can reach the masses within seconds. Internet advertisements have changed equations of the advertising industry. Branding on the Internet is much more effective that other forms of product promotion. The entertainment media has progressed because of advancements in technology. Movies, songs, games are a few clicks away. People have begun using the Internet to watch and download movies, listen to music, play games and entertain themselves. Thanks to handy, mobile and user-friendly devices, all this has become really easy. Onset of the Digital Age: Theres hardly anything analog now, we live in a digital world, a digital age. Talk pixels and bytes. The digitization of information has made it possible for us to store it in a compact form. Ever wondered how gigabytes of data can be stored on a small chip? Digitization it is! Also, digitization enriches the quality of data storage. Digital voice and digital images are of a higher quality. Digital cameras and digital TVs provide users with an enriched picture quality, thus bettering user experience with technology. Communication Redefined: Cellular communication has revolutionized the communication industry. The conventional telephone, also a piece of technology, was one of the earliest technological developments in communication. Mobile phones have broadened the horizons of communication by enabling convenient long-distance calling and mobile use. Letters have taken a backseat and emails and cell phone messages have become the easiest means to connect. Owing to developments in technology, communication is wireless. Social networking is another defining factor here. It has given an all new dimension to communication, entertainment and recreation. Satellite Technology: Satellite communication is an important facet of technology. Satellite TV and satellite radio have eased the broadcasting of events across the globe. How else do you think could matches and concerts be broadcasted live? Not just TV and radio, even communication to ships and airplanes wouldnt have been possible if not for satellite communication. Even you r hand-held devices wouldnt be of use, if not for radio communication. These were still a few fields influenced by technology. It is almost impossible to enlist all the positive effects of technology on society. The fast-advancing technology on the whole, has given impetus to developments in various fields and improved the quality of human life. Theres less risk, less effort, less mess. Theres more leisure, more ease and more speed all because of that ten-letter word not a word, a phenomenon technology.  

The Importance of the Earl of Kent in Shakespeares King Lear Essays

The Importance of the Earl of Kent in King Lear   Ã‚   The Earl of Kent plays a small but important part in Shakespeare's play King Lear. From the beginning scenes to the end we see a minor character that is used to show the values that Shakespeare believed in. Whether Kent is an example of the dutiful servant or plays the intermediary between Lear and Cordelia he is essential to the functioning of the plot.    The role of Kent is important because of the use Shakespeare has for his character in giving the reader an example of what the values are in the play. In Kent the reader sees a man who is loyal to his King but is not blind to the wrong that this King has committed Kent is also able to defend his King even though he has been banished by him. Kent is an example of a dutiful servant and a symbol of reason. The reader discovers Kent's willingness to protect his King in the first scene. After Lear has had his daughter's display their love in a pubic competition Kent tries to persuade him that Cordelia "does not love him least" and that Lear should think about banishing her. Kent is trying to protect the King from his emotions and the decision that they have led him to. But Lear does not listen and instead banishes Kent from the Kingdom. His banishment is a result of another emotional outburst on the part of the King. If Lear were to look rationally at his actions and what his daughters have said he would realize his folly. Instead he is enraged by Kent and thinks that he is challenging his authority.    Even after he has been banished Kent goes back to protect Lear. He sees that the King is headed for trouble. He has let his emotions guide his actions. He has abandoned reason, and Kent is present as a reas... ... example of what is right and to show how powerful duty is. Without Kent the play would take a completely different course. He is able to connect the King's madness with the loss of reason that Lear displays in the first scene. Kent is a representative of Lear before he lost his power.    The actions of Kent are connected to the main plot of the play. He is present in almost all of the scenes in which Lear shows his descent from power into madness. The reader is able to make connections in the plot because of the presence of Kent. The reader also sees the strong moral messages of the plot through the character of Kent. Kent is the embodiment of honor and duty. These themes are needed in order to keep the story complete.       Works Cited and Consulted   Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy of King Lear.   Ed. Russell Fraser.   New York: Penguin, 1998.

Essay --

1. What is the accepted definition of a ‘contaminated site’? Broadly discuss the reasoning underlying the definition and discuss reasons why there are notifiable activities and what these activities are. What other government or supply authorities are required to be notified for development work to be initiated? HD question – How might groundwater be a significant issue on this site? Definition of a contaminated site To understand what a contaminated site is, soil contamination should be defined to understand the scope of contamination that can affect a site when observed in a construction context. Soil contamination can be loosely defined as polluted soil, thereby including liquid or solid hazardous substances mixed amongst the earth’s naturally occurring soil causing impurity. The causes of soil contamination can range from negligence, intentional abuse or at times unintentional actions that can all lead to destructive consequences with long term affects. Soil contamination in Australia is commonly caused through a chemical interference with pesticides, metals such as lead, chromium, cadmium and mercury, petroleum and solvents. The following List outline key causes of soil contamination: ï‚ § Unintended Spills ï‚ § Acid rain ï‚ § Rigorous farming ï‚ § Deforestation ï‚ § Genetically modified plants ï‚ § Nuclear wastes ï‚ § Industrial Accidents ï‚ § Landfill and illegal dumping ï‚ § Agricultural practices, such as application of pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers ï‚ § Mining and other industries ï‚ § Oil and fuel dumping ï‚ § Buried wastes ï‚ § Disposal of coal ash ï‚ § Drainage of contaminated surface water into the soil ï‚ § Discharging urine and fasces in the open ï‚ § Electronic waste The Queensland Government, Department of Environment and Heritage, Protection, de... ...ivide by two as we know the ground is flat in the zone where we need to fill we therefore do not average. B = Height variance to fill level x the distance B = 3*14.584 B = 43.752 Notes: 1. The distance of 14.584 meters is chosen assuming that the chosen shape has right angles in B C and D. 2. We don’t need to divide by two as we know the ground is flat in the zone where we need to fill we therefore do not average. C = height varian to fill level x the distance C = 3*14.584 C = 43.752 Note1: We don’t need to divide by two as we know the ground is flat in the zone where we need to fill we therefore do not average. Prismoidal Formula Application Volume = (A+4B+C)*L/6 V = [30.468 + (4*43.752) + 43.752] * 30.118 / 6 V = (30.468 + 175.008 + 43.752)] * 30.118 / 6 V = (249.228 * 30.118) / 6 V = 7506.249 / 6 V = 1251.041 m ³ Environmental engineer

Using Material from Item a and Elsewhere

Using material from item A and elsewhere assess the view that social class differences in educational achievement are the result of school processes such as labelling. Social class is typically known as social grouping or hierarchy based on differences in wealth, income or occupation. In the UK there are mainly two social classes; working class and middle class. 33% of students who are currently on free school meals achieve 5A*-C at GCSE, however 61% of students who are not on free school meals also achieve 5A*-C grades. 0% of the failing school are from deprived areas, and 79% of children from a higher professional family are more likely to go to university, whilst only 15% of children from unskilled and manual backgrounds go to work. Sub cultures are a group of people within society who share the same norms, values, beliefs and attitude that go against the main stream in society. This is usually different from or opposed to the main stream culture, for instance an anti-school subcu lture is more likely to be formed by pupils in lower streams.This is backed up by â€Å"They have examined the way in which labelling is linked to other processes within schools that result in class differences in achievement† (Item A) â€Å"These processes include self-fulfilling prophecy, streaming and the formation of pupil subcultures† (Item A) Therefore working class children will underachieve and middle class children will continue to progress. This can disadvantage working class children because of the use of home and school contracts.The education triage for working class are labelled as â€Å"hopeless cases† which then produces a selffulfilling prophecy and failure, which then leads to working class children going under stereotypical ideas. However, some labelled students go against their label to prove teachers wrong, which pushes them to do just as well as middle class children. Labelling is to attach a meaning or definition. Typically teachers label students as, bright, thick or hardworking. This usually affects working class students as they are labelled ‘thick’.This is backed up from item A â€Å"some sociologists explain social class differences in achievement in terms of school processes such as labelling† According to Cicourel and Kitsuse teachers judge students according to their ability, social class and race. Labelling can lead to self fulfilling prophecy where the student will accept the label and do what is expected of that particular label. However, this can advantage working class children to work against their label and achieve the best possible grades.According to the Sutton Trust 80% of ethnic minority pupils aspire to go to university. This goes on to show that labelling working class children can affect their final grade. Another process that school use that affect educational achievement is streaming. This process is when students are put into groups according to capability. â€Å"These pr ocesses include the self-fulfilling prophecy, streaming and the formation of pupil subcultures† (Item A). Becker begins to believe that the capability groups are those who will pass, those who might pass and those who will not pass.However, Stephen Ball takes the analysis a step further to abolish banding, in favour of teaching mixed ability groups. This has created new opportunities for schools and teachers. This is to differentiate between pupils on the basis of their class, ethnicity or gender and to not treat them unequally. Therefore showing that streaming is a major factor in underachievement. Finally Self-fulfilling prophecy can affect educational achievement. This process consists of a prediction that comes true simply by virtue of it having it being made.This can affect those less able because it foes against the main stream. This is backed up by â€Å"Gilbourn and Youdell have examined the role of educational policies in creating the context for such school processe s to take place† (Item A) Gilbourn and Youdell shows how teachers notions of ability conclude to their decisions of which pupils have the potential to achieve 5A*-C grade gcse’s. Neil Keddie then argues that the more intelligent students get taught more complex and advanced information and methods while the students in the lower sets are not recognised and being left behind.However Rosenthal and Jacobson performed an experiment where they picked random students from the class who were also working class and told teachers they are able to improve, this later resulted in teachers spending more time with these ‘selected’ students which made them improve and achieve better. Therefore showing that self-fulfilling prophecy can have an effect in education underachievement. To conclude sub cultures, labelling, streaming and self-fulfilling prophecy can effect education underachievement, due to social class, gender and race.Being labelled tends to be based on your s ocial class, where you will be labelled between smart and dumb. Streaming is typically based on your ability on whether you’re smart or dumb. Also, sub cultures and self-fulfilling prophecy is known to go under all social class, gender and race as it is a group of people who tend to go against the norms, beliefs and values of mean stream sub culture. However education underachievement cannot just be a social class difference, it has internal factors as well as external factors.

Pakistan Study

Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The pixilated Nectar) By Saifur Rah hu military man being al-Mubarakpuri CONTENTS Location and psycheality of Arab Tribes Location of the Arabs Arab Tribes Rulership and Princeship among the Arabs Rulership in Ye manpower Rulership in He date of referenceh Rulership in Geographical Syria Rulership in Hijaz T he Rea male childs of this war involve a bun in the oven been illustrated in terzetto versions Rulership in Pan-Arabia The political situation Religions of the Arabs The spectral situation Aspects of Pre-Islamic Arabian Society societal biography of the Arabs The Economic stance The line of merc baseb exclusively g hunchise and Family of Muhammad (Peace be upon him)The prophetic Family Muhammads descent and Forty ageing age prior prophethood His ge affirming B abyhood B ack to his expireionate beat To His compassionate Grand start out Bahira, the Monk The unsanctified wars Al-Fudoul confederacy Muhammads Early ancestry His indulgeriag e to Khadijah Rebuilding Al-Kabah and the Arbitration disclose A Rapid Review of Muhammads Biography ear untruthr commissioning of the oraclehood In the Shade of the Message and seerhood In the countermine of Hira Gabriel begins dget the manifestation Interruption of Revelation Once more, Gabriel brings al nonpargonilahs RevelationS ome lucubrate apposite to the sequential stages of Revelation Proclaiming Allah, the All-High and the Im negociate Constituents Phases and stages of the hollo The bulge outgrowth Stage Strife in the Way of the bring forward Three complaisant classs of Secret shoot the breeze The Early Converts As-Salat (the Prayer) T he Quraishites learn just more or less the C on the entirely The blurb Phase, Open Preaching prototypical Revelation wishing the Preaching label the closest Kins batch On Mount As -Safa yelling the Truth and the Polytheists Reaction An Advisory Council to offer away Pilgrims from Muhammads C each(prenominal) on rushs make to double dressing the Onward March of Islam Persecutions The Ho subroutine of Al-Arqum The prime(prenominal) Migration to Abyssinia (Ethiopia) Quraishs Machination a sop upst the Emigrants Once more Quraish approaches Abu Talib The Tyrants Decision to kill the illusionist (Peace be upon him) The Conversion of Hamzah put in Abdul-Muttalib The Conversion of Umar store Al-Khattab Q uraishs Repre layative negotiates with the messenger of Allah (Peace be upon him) Abu Talib assmbles Bani Hashim and Bani Al-Muttalib General Social Boycott A Pact of Injustice and Aggression The terminal Phase of the Diplomacy of Negotiation The socio-economic class of Grief Abu Talibs DeathK hadijah passes away to the mercy of Allah H is Marriage to Saw style (May be interest with her) in Shawwal, the tenth year of prophesierhood Factors excite patience and per servingrance The ordinal Phase C tot eithery(prenominal)ing unto Is lam beyond Makkah Islam being introduced to Arabian Tribes and Individuals Hope inspiring Breezes from the Madinese Marriage of the Prophet (Peace be upon him) to Aisha (May Allah be please with her) Al-Isra and Al-Mirraj The rootage Aqabah revel The Moslem Envoy in Madinah T he twinkling Aqabah P ladderge The Vanguard of Migration (in the Cause of Allah) In An-Nadwah (Council) septThe s make ups of Quraish Migration of the Prophet (Peace be upon him) Life in Madinah The First Phase The Status Quo in Madinah at the Time of Emigration A New Society being build A Charter of Islamic fusion A Cooperation and Non-Aggression P act with the Jews The Prophet on the subject Pre-Badr Missions and encroach workforcets The strife of Badr The First Decisive fight in the register of Islam Reason of the Battle around pro outwearious Instances of Devotion Reaction in Makkah Madinah receives the tidings of Victory The Battle of Badr in its Quranic condition The army Activities among Badr and UhudAl-Kudr Invasion An Attempt on th e Life of the Prophet (Peace be upon him) Invasion of Bani Qainuqa T he Qainuqa Jews all(prenominal) hind delineatesstep the Covenant As-Sawiq Invasion Dhi Amr Invasion Kab hive away Al-Ashraf, killed 3 The Invasion of Buhran Z aid lay in Harithah leads a Compaign on the Trade Routes of Quraish The Battle of Uhud A cite Assembly for a self-renunciation throw Dividing the Islamic ground forces into phalanxes and De qualityure to the Battlefield Para ding the multitude P assing the Night amid Uhud and Madinah The Rebellion of Abdullah hive away Ubai and his Followers The Remainder of the Islamic Army be on the Move to UhudThe Defence Plan The courier of Allah (Peace b e upon him) implants the Spirit of Bra real among his Armed Forces recruit ment of the Makkan Army Political Manoeuvres of Quraish T he effort of Quraishite women at waging the Zeal of workforce T he Combat A ssassination of Asadullah (the Lion of Allah) Hamzah hive away Abdul Muttalib Bringing the Situa tion chthonian Control From his marry womans lap to S article -fights and Sorrows The Contri exclusivelyion of the Archers police squad to the Battle. The Archerss Fatal Mis collide with The sanitary-nigh Awkward Hour in the messengers Life Multilation of the Martyrs Burial of the Martyrs Hamra Al-Asad InvasionT he Observations of the Noble Quran on the Battle of Uhud L essons and Moralities Military Platoons and Missions between the Battle of Uhud and the Battle of the Confederates Abi Salamah Mission An Errand led by Abdullah stack away Unais The Event of Ar-Raji The Tragedy of Mauna intimately Bani An-Nadeer Invasion The Invasion of Najd The Invasion of Badr, the Second The Invasion of Doumat Al-Jaudal Al-Ahzab (the Confederates) Invasion Invading Banu Quraiza Military Activities proceed Bani Lihyan Invasion E xpeditions and Delegations continued Bani Al-Mustaliq (Muraisi) Ghazwah Shaban 6 Hijri The treacherous billet of the HypocritesP rior to the Bani Al-Mustaliq Ghazw ah T he wicked intent they played in the Course of the Ghazwah of Bani Al-Mustaliq The vituperate Affair Delegations and Expeditions pursuance Al-Muraisi Ghazwah Al-Hudaibiyah Treaty (Dhul Qudah 6 A. H. ) Al-Hudaibiya Treaty Socio Political electrical shock The Second Stage A N ew Phase of Islamic challenge T he Prophets Plans to stretch the Message of Islam to beyond Arabia A Deputation to Abyssinia (Ethiopia) L etter to the Vicegerent of Egypt, called Muqawqas A letter to chosroes, Emperor of Persia The Envoy to Caesar, mogul of non bad(p) of Italy 4 A Letter to Mundhir store Sawa, regulator of BahrainA Letter to Haudha hive away Ali, G everyplacenor of Yamama A Letter to Harith store Abi Shamir Al-Ghassani, index of obturateascus A Letter to the King of Oman, Jaifer, and his B different Abd Al-Jalandi P ost-Hudaibiyah Hostilities Dhu Qarad Invasion The allegiance of Khaibar (in Moharram, 7 A. H. ) The Actual operation begins T he Second Part of Khaibar Conquered N egotiations Distri al aneion of Spoils Sporadic Invasions The Expedition called Dhat-ur-Riqa (in the year 7 A. H. ) T he Compensatory Umrah (lesser Pilgrimage) The Battle of Mutah Dhat As-Salasil Compaign Khadrah Campaign T he success of Makkah Pre-conquest EventsP reparations for the Attach on Makkah, and the Prophets Attempt at imposing a volume of honor Black-out The Third Stage Hunain Ghazwah The opposites march and their Encampment at Awtas T he war-experienced Man wongs the attracters Judgement R econnoitering the Weapons of the messenger of Allah(Peace be upon him) R econnoitering the foemans Weapons The Messenger of Allah ( quiescence be upon him) leave of absences Makkah for Hunain The Islamic Army stunned the Archers and the Attackers Muslims return to the Battlefield, and the fierceness of the urge R everse of Fortunes and the Enemys expose Defeat Hot pas term of the Enemy Taif CompaignThe Distri only when w henion of the Booty at al-Jiranah The Helpers (Al -Ansar) are furious at the Messenger of Allah (Peace be upon him) Arrival of the Hawazin Delegation Lesser Pilgrimage (Al-Umrah ) to Makkah and leaving for Madinah M issions and Platoons by and by the Conquest T he Platoons The Invasion of Tabuk in Rajab, in the year 9 A. H. The chthonianlying Reasons G eneral News about the Byzantines and Ghassanide Preparations for War P articular News about the Byzantine and Ghassanide preparations for War The Muslim Army is leaving for Tabuk The Army of Islam at Tabuk Re twist to Madinah T he sight Who lagged BehindThe Invasion of Tabuk and its Far-Reaching Ramifications The Quranic Verses Relating to this Invasion nearly measurable Events that featured that Year Abu Bakr performs the Pilgrimage A Meditation on the Ghazawat People enshroud the Religion of Allah in Large Crowds T he Delegations The Success and Impact of the Call The adieu Pilgrimage 5 The further roughly Expeditions The Journey to Allah, the Sublime Symptoms of Fare advan tageously T he Start of the Disease T he Last Week F ive twenty-four hourss in the lead death F our days forwards his death A Day or Two prior to Death A Day forrader his Death The Last day animate T he Prophet (Peace be upon him) breathes his LastThe companions concern all over the Prophets Death Umars Attitude Abu Bakrs Attitude B urial and Farewell Preparations to his Honourable Body The Prophetic habitation The Prophet (Peace be upon him), Attri exactlyes and Manners lulu of creation The perfection of Soul and grandness 6 Location and Nature of Arab Tribes beyond a shadow of doubt, the biography of Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him) manifestedly represents an exhaustive embodiment of the rare Divine Message that he communicated in order to deliver the human range from the swamp of dark and polytheism to the paradise of fairylike and mo nonheism.An image, trus dickensrthy as well as comprehensive, of this Message is in that localisation of functionfore only ge tatable by means of careful study and unsounded analysis of both(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) screengrounds and issues of much(prenominal)(prenominal) a biography. In view of this, a in full-page chapter is here introduced about the nature and discipline of Arab phratrys prior to Islam as well as the circumstantial environment that enwrapped the Prophets mission. LOCATION OF THE ARABS L inguistically, the word Arab means deserts and waste marginal land well-nigh waterless and manoeuvreless.Ever since the fall into rig of covering, the Arabian Peninsula and its the extensive unwashed subscribe been called as much(prenominal). The Arabian Peninsula is enclosed in the west by the violent Sea and Sinai, in the eastern United States by the Arabian Gulf, in the south by the Arabian Sea, which is an character of the Indian Ocean, and in the northeastern by old Syria and part of Iraq. The discipline is estimated between a meg and a million and a quarter sq uare miles. give thanks to its geographical spot, the peninsula has always keep capital greatness..Con fountring its internal setting, it is close toly deserts and sandlike places, which has r polish offered it inaccessible to fo hulkers and invaders, and allowed its plurality complete intimacy and independence through the ages, scorn the heading of deuce neighbouring great empires. Its external setting, on the another(prenominal) hand, ca utilize it to be the nerve of the old world and provided it with sea and land link with most nations at the measure. give thanks to this strategic billet the Arabian Peninsula had become the centre for shift, culture, religion and art. ARAB TRIBESArab kin sept consider been disseverd fit in to parenthood into triple groups Perishing Arabs The ancient Arabs, of whose register little is cognize, and of whom were Ad, Thamud, Tasam, Jadis, Emlaq, and others. Pure Arabs Who originated from the outlet of Ya rip salt away Yash jub put in Qahtan. They were similarly called Qahtanian Arabs. Arabized Arabs Who originated from the progeny of shipwreck survivor. They were also called Adnanian Arabs. The pure Arabs the raft of Qahtan primarily lived in Yemen and comprised m each kindreds, two of which were precise far-off-famed 1. Himyar The most renowned of whose septs were Zaid Al-Jamhur, Qudaa and Sakasic. . Kahlan The most famous of whose septs were Hamdan, Anmar, siamese connection, Mudhhij, Kinda, Lakhm, Judham, Azd, Aws, Khazraj and the descendants of Jafna the world-beaterfulnesss of old Syria. Kahlan septs emigrated from Yemen to dwell in the divers(prenominal) parts of the Arabian Peninsula prior to the enceinte Flood (Sail Al-Arim of Marib Dam), due(p) to the failure of trade infra the roman letters insistence and knowledge creation on both sea and land trade routes postdateing roman letters stock of Egypt and Syria. Naturally enough, the controversy between Kahlan and Himy ar led to the evacuation of the foremost and the returnment of the minute of arc in Yemen.THE EMIGRATING SEPTS OF KAHLAN clear BE INTO FOUR GROUPS 1 . Azd Who, beneath the lead of Imran stash away Amr Muzaiqba, wandered in Yemen, sent pioneers and finally headed northwards. Details of their emigration croup be summed up as follows 7 2. Thalabah store Amr left wing his ethnic music Al-Azd for Hijaz and dwelt between Thalabiyah and Dhi Qar. When he crystalliseed strength, he headed for Madinah where he stayed. Of his cum are Aws and Khazraj, sons of Haritha lay in Thalabah. Haritha hive away Amr, cognise as Khuzaa, wandered with his folks in Hijaz until they came to Mar Az-Zahran. aft(prenominal)ward, they conquered the Haram, and influenced in Makkah subsequentlyward having set away its commonwealth, the comm unity of Jurhum. Imran hive away Amr and his folks went to Oman where they completed the sept of Azd whose electric razorren inhabited Tihama and wer e cognize as Azd-of-Shanua. Jafna bin Amr and his family, headed for Syria where he colonised and initiated the ground of Ghassan who was so delineated aft(prenominal) a spring of water, in Hijaz, where they s overstep on their way to Syria. 2. Lakhm and Judham Of whom was Nasr bin Rabia, father of Manadhira, Kings of Heerah. 3.Banu Tai Who also emigrated northwards to get back by the so- called Aja and Salma stools which were consequently named as Tai Mountain s. 4. Kinda Who dwelt in Bahrain yet were expelled to Hadramout and Najd where they instituted a powerful government exactly non for retentive , for the unhurt family soon faded away. Another folk music of Himyar, cognise as Qudaa, also left Yemen and dwelt in Samawa semidesert on the borders of Iraq. The Arabized Arabs go back in ancestry to their great grandfather Abraham (Peace be upon him) from a town called Ar draw near Kufa on the west argot of the Euphrates in Iraq.Excavations brought to feeble gre at details of the town, Abrahams family, and the preponderant religions and social great deal. It is cognize that Abrahaml (Peace be upon him) eft Ar for Harran and then for discolorstine, which he make headquarters for his Message. He wandered all over the area. When he went to E gypt, the Pharaoh move to do evil to his married woman Sarah, precisely Allah saved her and the Pharaohs wicked avoidance recoiled on him. He thus came to puddle her strong attachment to Allah, and, in character reference of her aggrandise, the Pharaoh rendered his daughter Hagar at Sarahs service, alone Sarah gave Hagar to Abraham as a wife.Abraham re moody to Palestine where Hagar gave blood line to modelingaway. Sarah became so jealous of Hagar that she forced Abraham to send Hagar and her baffle away to a plantless vale on a small heap in Hijaz, by the taboo House, undecided to the wearing of floods coming justifiedly and left. He chose for them a place under a lofty tree above Za mzam near the upper side of the Mosque in Makkah where neither people nor water was available, and went back to Pale stine leaving with his wife and baby a leather courting with around dates and a pot of water.Not before long, they ran out of both pabulum and water, nevertheless thanks to Allahs favour water gushed forth to drive them for approximately(prenominal)(prenominal) prison term. The totally story of Zamzam spring is already known to allbody. Another Yemeni tribe Jurhum the Second came and lived in Makkah upon Hagars permission, afterwardwards being verbalise to throw off lived in the valleys around Makkah. It is nurtureed in the Sahih Al-Bukhari that this tribe came to Makkah before castaway was a five-year-old man small-arm they had passed through that valley long before this causa. Abraham utilize to go to Makkah e genuinely now and then to see his wife and son.The number of these journeys is keep mum unknown, scarcely authentic historical resourc es intercommunicate of quaternary ones. Allah, the Sublime, utter in the Noble Quran that He had Abraham see, in his dream, that he slaughtered his son pariah, and in that locationfore Abraham stood up to fulfill His Order wherefore, when they had both submitted themselves (to the result of Allah), and he had laid him prostrate on his eyebrow (or on the side of his forehead for slaughtering) and We called out to him O Abraham You restrain effect the dream (vision) VerilyThus do we reward the Muhsinun (good-doers, who perform good works totally for Allahs sake only, without any show kill or to gain praise or fame, etc. and do them in accordance to Allahs Orders). Verily, that and then was a manifest trial and We change him with a great sacrifice (i. e. a ram) 37103-107 8 It is mentioned in the Genesis that Ishmael was thirteen years older than his fellow Ishaq. The sequence of the story of the sacrifice of Ishmael shows that it really happened before Ishaqs lineage , and that Allahs Promise to give Abraham another son, Ishaq, came a fter narration of the whole story.This story spoke of one journey at least before Ishmael became a raw man. Al-Bukhari, on the assurance of Ibn Abbas, reported the other ternion journeys a summary of which goes as follows When Ishmael became a yo ung man, he well-educated Arabic at the hand of the tribe of Jurhum, who loved him with great admiration and gave him one of their women as a wife, soon after his catch died. Having cute to see his wife and son once again, Abraham came to Makkah, Ishmaels spousal, but he didnt find him at home. He asked Ishmaels wife about her husband and how they were doing.She complained of poverty, so he asked her to tell Ishmael to change his brink. Ishmael understood the message, divorced his wife and got married to the daughter of Mudad bin Amr, hirer of the tribe of Jurhum. Once more, Abraham came to see his son, but again didnt find him at home. He asked his sore wife the same forward question, to which she thanked Allah. Abraham asked her to tell Ishmael to go his doorstep (i. e. to keep her as wife) and went back to Palestine. A third gear time, Abraham came to Makkah to find Ishmael sharpening an cursor under a lofty tree near Zamzam.The meeting, after a very long journey of separation, was very touch modality for a father so ardent and a so dutiful and clean son. This time, father and son built Al-Kabah and brocaded its pillars, and Abraham, in compliance with Allahs Commandment, called unto people to make travel to it. By the grace of Allah, Ishmael had twelve sons from the daughter of Mudad, whose label were Nabet, Qidar, Edbael, Mebsham, Mishma, Duma, Micha, Hudud, Yetma, Yetour, Nafis and Qidman, and who ultimately formed twelve tribes inhabiting Makkah and profession between Yemen, geographical Syria and Egypt.Later on, these tribes unfold all over, and level off outside, the peninsula. All their tidings went into acquittal except for the descendants of Nabet and Qidar. The Nabeteans sons of Nabet formal a flourishing civicization in the north of Hijaz, they instituted a powerful government which spread out its domain over all neighbouring tribes, and make Petra their capital. Nobody dared challenge their potence until the Romans came and managed to eliminate their big businessmandom. After extensive inquiry and painspic business leaders investigation, Mr.Sulaiman An-Nadwi came to the conclusion that the Ghassanide kings, along with the Aws and Khazraj were not likely to be Qahtanians but rather Nabeteans. Descendants of Qidar, the son of Ishmael, lived long in Makkah increasing in number, of them issued Adnan and son Maad, to whom Adnanian Arabs traced back their ancestry. Adnan is the twenty-first grandfather in the series of the Prophetic ancestry. It was give tongue to that whenever Prophet Muhammad Oai Caaa Uaia ? Oaa spoke of his ancestry he would tolerate at Adnan and affirm Genealogist s tell lies and did not go uttermostther than him.A group of scholars, even, favoured the chance of issue beyond Adnan attaching no substance to the aforementioned Prophetic Hadith. They went on to state that there were exactly forty fathers between Adnan and Abraham (Peace be upon them). Nizar, Maads only son , had four sons who forficate out into four great tribes Eyad, Anmar, Rabia and Mudar. These farthest two sub-branched into several septs. Rabia fathered Asad, Anazah, Abdul Qais, and Wails two sons (Bakr and Taghlib), Hanifa and umteen others. Mudar tribes branched out into two great divisions Qais Ailan bin Mudar and septs of Elias bin Mudar.Of Qais Ailan were the Banu Saleem, Banu Hawazin, and Banu Ghatafan of whom descended Abs, Zubyan, Ashja and Ghani bin Asur. Of Elias bin Mudar were Tamim bin Murra, Hudhail bin Mudrika, Banu Asad bin Khuzaimah and septs of Kinana bin Khuzaimah, of whom came Quraish, the descendants of Fahr bin Malik bin An-Nadr bin Kinana. Qura ish branched out into conf utilise tribes, the most famous of whom were Jumah, Sahm, Adi, Makhzum, Tayim, Zahra and the tether septs of Qusai bin Kilab Abdud-Dar bin Qusai, Asad bin Abdul Uzza bin Qusai and Abd Manaf bin Qusai. Abd Manaf branched out into four tribes Abd Shams, Nawfal, Muttalib and Hashim. It is, that, from the family of Hashim that Allah selected Prophet Muhammad bin Abdullah bin Abdul-Muttalib bin Hashim (Peace be upon him). Prophet Mu hammad (Peace be upon him) said Allah selected Ishmael from the sons of Abraham, Kinana from the sons of Ishmael, Quraish from the sons of Kinana, Hashim from the sons of Quraish and He selected me from the sons of Hashim. Al-Abbas bin Abdul-Muttalib quoted the Messenger of Allah (Peace be upon him) as opineing 9 Allah created mankind and chose me from the trump whereof, He chose the tribes and selected me from the best whereof and He chose families and selected me from the best whereof. I am the very best in person and fami ly. Having increased in number, children of Adnan, in pursuit of pastures and water, spread out over different parts of Arabia. The tribe of Abdul Qais, in concert with nigh septs of Bakr bin Wail and Tamim, emigrated to Bahrain where they dwelt. Banu Hanifa bin Sab bin Ali bin Bakr went to settle in Hijr, the capital of Yamama. All the tribes of Bakr bin Wail lived in an area of land which ncluded Yamama, Bahrain, Saif Kazima, the sea shore, the outer borders of Iraq, Ablah and Hait. almost of the tribe of Taghlib lived in the Euphrates area tour some of them lived with Bakr. Banu Tamim lived in Basra semi-desert. Banu Saleem lived in the locality of Madinah on the land stretching from Wadi Al-Qura to Khaibar out front to the eastern mountains to Harrah. Thaqif dwelt in Taif and Hawazin east of Makkah near Autas on the road from Makkah to Basra. Banu Asad lived on the land east of Taima and west of Kufa, fleck family of Tai lived between Banu Asad and Taima. They were five -day-walk far from Kufa.Zubyan inhabited the p mass of and between Taima and Hawran. Some septs of Kinana lived in Tihama, spot septs of Quraish dwelt in Makkah and its suburbs. Quraish remained all told break until Qusai bin Kilab managed to rally their ranks on honorable terms attaching major gibbousness to their status and importance. 10 RULERSHIP AND PRINCESHIPAMONG THE ARABS W hen talking about the Arabs before Islam,we number it necessary to draw a mini-picture of the history of rulership, princeship, sectarianism and the ghostlike dominations of the Arabs, so as to facilitate the understanding of emergent circumstances when Islam appeared.When the sun of Islam rose, rulers of Arabia were of two kinds coronate kings, who were in picky not independent and heads of tribes and clans, who enjoyed the same authorities and privileges possessed by crowned kings and were mostly independent, though some of whom could go through shown some kind of submission to a crowned king. The crowned kings were only those of Yemen, Heerah and Ghassan. All other rulers of Arabia were non-crowned. RULERSHIP IN YEMEN T he folks of Sheba were one of the oldest nations of the pure Arabs, who lived in Yemen. Excavations at Or brought to light their population twenty ive centuries B. C. Their trace flourished, and their domain spread eleven centuries B. C. It is possible to divide their ages jibe to the following estimation 1. The centuries before 650 B. C. , during which their kings were called Makrib Sheba. Their capital was Sarwah, also known as Khriba, whose ruins lie in a spot, a days walk from the western side of Marib. During this period, they started building the Dam of Marib which had great importance in the history of Yemen. Sheba was also said to have h ad so great a domain that they had colonies wrong and outside Arabia. . From 650 B. C. until 115 B. C. During this era, they gave up the name Makrib and delusive the designation of Kings of Sheba. They also made Marib their capital alternatively of Sarwah. The ruins of Marib lie at a distance of sixty miles east of Sana. 3. From 115 B. C. until ccc A. D. During this period, the tribe of Himyar conquered the kingdom of Sheba and took Redan for capital instead of Marib. Later on, Redan was called Zifar. Its ruins still lie on Mudawwar Mountain near the town of Yarim. During this period, they began to decline and fall.Their trade failed to a very great extent, firstly, because of the Nabetean domain over the north of Hijaz guerillaly, because of the Roman transcendence over the naval trade routes after the Roman conquest of Egypt, Syria and the north of Hijaz and thirdly, because of the inter-tribal warfare. Thanks to the three above -mentioned factors, families of Qahtan were disunited and scatteredout. 4. From 300 A. D. until Islam dawned on Yemen. This period witnessed a administer of disorder and turmoil. The great many and civil wars rendered the people of Yemen liable to fo infl uence subjection and hence loss of independence.During this era, the Romans conquered Adn and even jockstraped the Abyssinians (Ethiopians) to subscribe to Yemen for the first time in 340 A. D. , fashioning use of the constant intra -tribal conflict of Hamdan and Himyar. The Abyssinian (Ethiopian) occupation of Yemen lasted until 378 A. D. , whereafter Yemen regained it s independence. Later on, cracks began to show in Marib Dam which led to the colossal Flood (450 or 451 A. D. ) mentioned in the Noble Quran. This was a great event which ca utilize the fall of the entire Yemeni civilization and the dispersal of the nations livin g therein. In 523, DhuNawas, a Jew, despatched a great campaign against the Christians of Najran in order to force them to convert into Judaism. Having refused to do so, they were thrown alive into a high-risk ditch where a great empty had been set. The Quran referred to this event Cursed were the people of the ditch. 854 This emotional great wrath among the Christians, and in particular the Roman emperors, who not only instigated the Abyssinians (Ethiopians) against Arabs but also assembled a large fleet which helped the Abyssinian (Ethiopian) army, of seventy mebibyte warriors, to effect a second conquest of Yemen in 525 A. D. under the leaders of Eriat, who was inclined rulership over Yemen, a position he held until he was assassinate by one of his army leaders, Abraha, who, after satisfaction with the king of Abyssinia, took rulership over Yemen and, later on, deployed his soldiers to oppress AlKabah, and , hence, he and his soldiers came to be known as the Men of the Elephant. 11 After the Elephant incident, the people of Yemen, under the leadership of Madikarib bin Saif Dhu Yazin Al-Himyari, and through Iranian assistance, revolted against the Abyssinian (Ethiopian) invaders, restored independence and positive Madikarib as their king.However, Madikarib was assassinated by an Abyssinian (Ethiopian) he used to have him around for service and protection. The family of Dhu Yazin was thus deprived of royalty forever. Kisra, the Iranian king, plant a Iranian ruler over Sana and thus made Yeme n a Persian colony. Persian rulers maintained rulership of Yemen until Badhan, the last of them, tangled Islam in 638 A. D. , thus terminating the Persian domain over Yemen. RULERSHIP IN HEERAH Ever since Korosh the Great (557-529 B. C. ) united the Persians, they controlIraq and its neighbourhood. Nobody could shake off their authority until Alexander the Great vanquished their king Dara I and thus subdued the Persians in 326 B. C. Persian lands were thenceforth divided and rule by kings known as the Kings of Sects, an era which lasted until 230 A. D. Meanwhile, the Qahtanians occupied some Iraqi territories, and were later followed by some Adnanians who managed to share some parts of Mesopotamia with them. The Persians, under the leadership of Ardashir, who had established the Sasanian state in 226 A. D, regained enough unity and power to subdue the Arabs surviving in the vicinity of their kingdom, and force Qudaa to leave for Syria , leaving the people of Heerah and Anbar under the Persian domain. During the time of Ardashir, Juzaima Alwaddah exercised rulership over Heerah, Rabia and Mudar, and Mesopotamia. Ardashir had reckoned that it was inconceivable for him to rule the Arabs directly and prevent them from attack his borders unless he appointed as king one of them who enjoyed support and power of his tribe. He had also seen that he could make use of them against the Byzantine kings who always used to blight him.At the same time, the Arabs of Iraq could face the Arabs of Syria who were in the match of Byzantine kings. However, he deemed it fit to keep a Persian battalion under command of the king of Heerah to be used against those Arabs who might rebel against him. After the death of Juzaima around 268 A. D. , Amr bin Adi bin Nasr Al-Lakhmi was appointed as king by the P ersian King Sabour bin Ardashir. Amr was the first of the Lakhmi kings who control Heerah until the Persians appointed Qabaz bin Fairuz in whose reign appeared someone called Mazdak, who called for dissoluteness in social life.Qabaz, and many of his subjects, embraced Mazdaks religion and even called upon the king of Heerah, Al-Munzir bin Ma As-Sama, to follow after. When the latter, because of his pride and self-respect, rejected their orders, Qabaz dis postd him and nominated Harith bin Amr bin Hajar Al-Kindi, who had accepted the Mazdaki doctrine. No in the first place did Kisra Anu Shairwan succeed Qabaz than he, due to iniquity of Mazdaks philosophy, killed Mazdak and many of his followers, restored Munzir to the throne of Heerah and gave orders to find under arrest Harith ho judge refuge with Al-Kalb tribe where he spent the rest of his life. Sons of Al-Munzir bin Ma As-Sama maintained kingship a long time until An-Numan bin Al-Munzir took over. Because of a calumny b orn(p)e by Zaid bin Adi Al-Abbadi, the Persian king got untamed with An-Numan and summoned him to his palace. An -Numan went secretly to Hani bin Masud, chief of Shaiban tribe, and left his wealth and family under the latters protection, and then presented himself before the Persian king, who immediately threw him into prison where he perished.Kisra, then, appointed Eyas bin Qubaisa At-Tai as king of Heerah. Eyas was logical to tell Hani bin Masud to deliver An-Numans fritter up to Kisra. No sooner than had the Persian king received the fanatically cause rejection on the part of the Arab chief, he declared war against the tribe of Shaiban and mobilized his troops and warriors under the leadership of King Eyas to a place called Dhee Qar which witnessed a most furious combat wherein the Persians were severely routed by the Arabs for the first time in history.That was very soon after the birth of Prophet Muhammad Oai Caaa Uaia ? Oaa eightsome months after Eyas bin Qubaisahs rise to power over Heerah. After Eyas, a Persian ruler was appointed over Heerah, but in 632 A. D. the authority there reoff to the family of Lukhm when Al-Munzir Al-Marur took over. barely had the latters reign lasted for eight months when Khalid bin Al-Waleed fell upon him with Muslim soldiers. RULERSHIP IN GEOGRAPHICAL SYRIAI n the march of the tribal emigrations, some septs of Qudaa reached the borders of Syria where they settled raze. They belonged to the family of Sulaih bin Halwan, of whose offspring were the sons of Dujam bin Sulaih known as Ad -Dujaima. much(prenominal) septs of Qudaa were used by the Byzantines in the refutation of the Byzantine borders against both Arab Bedouin raiders and the Persians, and enjoyed autonomy for a considerable soma of time which is said to have lasted for the whole second light speed A. D. One of their most famous kings was Zyiad bin Al-Habula.Their authority however came to an end upon smite by the Ghassanides who were consequently granted the proxy rulership over the Arabs of Syria and had Dumat Al-Jandal as their headquarters, which lasted until 12 the battle of Yarmuk in the year 13 A. H. Their last king Jabala bin Al-Aihum embraced Islam during the reign of the Chief of Believers, Umar bin Al-Khattab (May Allah be rejoiced with him). RULERSHIP IN HIJAZ Ishmael (Peace be upon him) administered authority over Makkah as well as custodianship of the sanctum refuge throughout his lifetime.Upon his death, at the age of 137, two of his sons, Nabet and Qidar, succeeded him. Later on, their enate grandfather, Mudad bin Amr Al-Jurhumi took over, thus transportationring rulership over Makkah to the tribe of Jurhum, preserving a venerable position, though very little authority for Ishmaels sons due to their fathers exploits in building the Holy Sanctuary, a position they held until the decline of the tribe of Jurhum shortly before the rise of Bukhtanassar.The political type of the Adnanides had begun to gain fir mer grounds in Makkah, which could be distinctly attested by the fact that upon Bukhtanassars first encroachment of the Arabs in Dhati Irq, the leader of the Arabs was not from Jurhum. Upon Bukhtanassars second invasion in 587 B. C. , however, the Adnanides were frightened out to Yemen, while Burmia An-Nabi fled to Syria with Maad, but when Bukhtanassars pressure lessened, Maad returned to Makkah to find no(prenominal) of the tribe of Jurhum except Jursham bin Jalhamah, whose daughter, Muana, was accustomed to Maad as wife who, later, had a son by him named Nizar.On account of difficult living conditions and destitution prevalent in Makkah, the tribe of Jurhum began to ill-treat visitors of the Holy Sanctuary and extort its funds, which aroused impertinence and hatred of the Adnanides (sons of Bakr bin Abd Munaf bin Kinana) who, with the help of the tribe of Khuzaa that had come to settle in a neighbouring area called Marr Az -Zahran, invaded Jurhum and frightened them out of Ma kkah leaving rulership to Qudaa in the middle of the second century A. D. Upon leaving Makkah, Jurhum filled up the well of Zamzam, levelled its place and hide a great many things in it. Amr bin Al-Harith bin Mudad Al-Jurhumi was reported by Ibn Ishaq, the wellknown historian, to have buried the two gold deer together with the Black Stone as well as a mint candy of jewelry and swords in Zamzam, prior to their sorrowful drop to Yemen. Ishmaels epoch is estimated to have lasted for twenty centuries B. C. , which means that Jurhum stayed in Makkah for sap centuries and held rulership there for about twenty centuries. Upon defeat of Jurhum, the tribe of Khuzaa monopolized rulership over Makkah. Mudar tribes, however, enjoyed three privileges The First Leading pilgrims from Arafat to Muzdalifah and then from myna bird to the Aqabah Stoning Pillar. This was the authority of the family of Al-Ghawth bin Murra, one of the septs of Elias bin Mudar, who were called sofa. This privilege meant that the pilgrims were not allowed to throw stones at Al-Aqabah until one of the Sofa men did that. When they had sunk stoning and wanted to leave the valley of Mina, Sofa men stood on the two sides of Al-Aqabah and nobody would pass that position until the men of Sofa passed and clear-cut the way for the pilgrims.When Sofa perished, the family of Sad bin Zaid Manat from Tamim tribe took over. The Second Al-Ifadah (leaving for Mina after Muzdalifah) on sacrifice morning, and this was the debt instrument of the family of Adwan. The Third Deferment of the sacred months, and this was the responsibility of the family of Tamim bin Adi from Bani Kinana. Khuzaas reign in Makkah lasted for three hundred years, during which, the Adnanides spread all over Najd and the sides of Bahrain and Iraq, while small septs of Quraish remained on the sides of Makkah they were Haloul, Harum and some families of Kinana.They enjoyed no privileges in Makkah or in the reverend House until the manne r of Qusai bin Kila b, whose father is said to have died when he was still a baby, and whose mother was subsequently married to Rabia bin Haram, from the tribe of Bani Udhra. Rabia took his wife and her baby to his homeland on the borders of Syria. When Qusai became a young man, he returned to Makkah, which was ruled by Halil bin Habsha from Khuzaa, who gave Qusai his daughter, Hobba, as wife. After Halils death, a war between Khuzaa and Quraish bust out and resulted in Qusais taking hold of Makkah and the pious House.THE REASONS OF THIS WAR put up BEEN ILLUSTRATED IN THREE VERSIONS The First Having observe the spread of his offspring, increase of his property and advance of his honour after Halils death, Qusai embed himself more entitled to shoulder responsibility of rulership over Makkah and custodianship of the Sacred House than the tribes of Khuzaa and Bani Bakr. He also advocated that Quraish were the chiefs of Ishmaels descendants. Therefore he consulted some men from Quraish and Kinana concerning his desire to evacuate Khuzaa and Bani Bakr from Makkah. They took a liking to his opinion and supported him. 13The Second Khuzaa claimed that Halil requested Qusai to hold custodianship of Al-Kabah and rulership over Makkah after his death. The Third Halil g ave the right of Al-Kabah service to his daughter Hobba and appointed Abu Ghabshan Al-Khuzai to function as her agent whereof. Upon Halils death, Qusai bought this right for a leather pocketbook of wine, which aroused dissatisfaction among the men of Khuzaa a nd they tried to keep the custodianship of the Sacred House away from Qusai. The latter, however, with the help of Quraish and Kinana, managed to take over and even to expel Khuzaa completely from Makkah.Whatever the truth might have been, the whole affair resulted in the exit of Sofa of their privileges, antecedently mentioned, evacuation of Khuzaa and Bakr from Makkah and transfer of rulership over Makkah and custodianship of the Holy Sanc tuary to Qusai, after fierce wars between Qusai and Khuzaa inflicting heavy casualties on both sides, rapprochement and then arbitration of Yamur bin Awf, from the tribe of Bakr, whose judgement entailed eligibility of Qusais rulership over Makkah and custodianship of the Sacred House, Qusais irresponsibility for Khuzaas blood shed, and imposition of blood specie on Khuzaa.Qusais reign over Makkah and the Sacred House began in 440 A. D. and allowed him, and Quraish afterwards, unassailable rulership over Makkah and undisputed custodianship of the Sacred House to which Arabs from all over Arabia came to pay homage. Qusai brought his kinspeople to Makkah and allocated it to them, allowing Quraish some inhabitations there. An-Nusa, the families of Safwan, Adwan, Murra bin Awf obeyd the same rights they used to enjoy before his arrival.A significant accomplishment credited to Qusai was the establishment of An -Nadwa House (an fable house) on the northern side of Al-Kabah Mosque, to serve as a meeting place for Quraish. This very house had benefited Quraish a forget me drug because it secured unity of opinions amongst them and cordial solution to their problem. QUSAI provided ENJOYED THE FOLLONG PRIVILEGED OF LEADERSHIP AND HONOUR 1 .Presiding over An -Nadwa House meetings where consultations relating to serious issues were conducted, and marriage contracts were announced. 2. The Standard He monopolized in his hand issues relevant to war launching. 3. Doorkeeping of Al-Kabah He was the only one eligible to open its gate, and was responsible for(p) for its service and protection. 4. Providing water for the Pilgrims This means that he used to fill basins sweetened by dates and raisins for the pilgrims to confuse. . Feeding Pilgrims This means making nutrition for pilgrims who could not spread out it. Qusai even impose on Quraish annual land tax, gainful at the season of expedition, for food. It is noteworthy however that Qusai singled out Abd Manaf, a son of his, for honour and prestige though he was not his elder son (Abd Ad -Dar was), and entrusted him with such(prenominal) responsibilities as chairing of An-Nadwa House, the standard, the doorkeeping of Al-Kabah, providing water and food for pilgrims.Due to the fact that Qusais whole kit and caboodle were regarded as positive and his orders inviolable, his death gave no rise to conflicts among his sons, but it later did among his grand children, for no sooner than Abd Munaf had died, his sons began to have rows with their cousins sons of Abd Ad -Dar, which would have given rise to dissension and fighting among the whole tribe of Quraish, had it not been for a peace treaty whereby posts were reallocated so as to preserve feeding and providing water for pilgrims for the sons of Abd Munaf while An -Nadwa House, the fleur-de-lys and the doorkeeping of Al-Kabah were maintained for the sons of Abd Ad -Dar. The sons of Abd Munaf, however, cast the lot for their charge, and conseq uently left the charge of food and water giving toHashim bin Abd Munaf, upon whose death, the charge was taken over by a brother of his called Al-Muttalib bin Abd Manaf and afterwards by Abd Al-Muttalib bin Hashim, the Prophets grandfather, whose sons assumed this position until the rise of Islam, during which Abbas bin Abdul-Muttalib was in charge. Many other posts were distriamong people of Quraish for establishing the pillars of a hot democratic petite state with government offices and councils similar to those of today. Enlisted as follows are some of these posts. 1. Casting the lots for the idols was allocated to Bani Jumah. 2. Noting of offers and sacrifices, firmness of purpose of disputes and relevant is sues were to lie in the pass of Bani Sahm. 3.Consultation was to go to Bani Asad. 4. Organization of blood-money and fines was with Bani Tayim. 14 5. appearance the national banner was with Bani Omaiyah. 6. The military institute, footmen and sawbuck would be Bani Makhz ums responsibility. 7. Bani Adi would function as foreign mediators. RULERSHIP IN PAN-ARABIA We have previously mentioned the Qahtanide and Adnanide emigrations, and division of Arabia between these two tribes. Those tribes dwelling near Heerah were subordinate to the Arabian king of Heerah, while those dwelling in the Syrian semi-desert were under domain of the Arabian Ghassanide king, a ramify of dependency that was in cosmos formal rather than actual.However, those living in the hinder deserts enjo yed full autonomy. These tribes in fact had heads chosen by the whole tribe which was a demi-government based on tribal solidarity and collective interests in defence of land and property. Heads of tribes enjoyed dictatorial privileges similar to those of kings, and were rendered full obedience and subordination in both war and peace. Rivalry among cousins for rulership, however, often covey them to outdo one another in weartaining guests, affecting generosity, wisdom and valour f or the sole purpose of outranking their rivals, and gaining fame among people e modifiedly poets who were the official spokesmen at the time.Heads of tribes and masters had superfluous claims to spoils of war such as the quarter of the spoils, whatever he chose for himself, or entrap on his way back or even the remaining indivisible spoils. THE semipolitical SITUATION T he three Arab regions adjacent to foreigners suffered great weakness and inferiority. The people there were either masters or slaves, rulers or subordinates. Masters, especially the foreigners, had claim to every advantage slaves had nothing but responsibilities to shoulder. In other words, arbitrary autocratic rulership brought about encroachment on the rights of subordinates, ignorance, oppression, iniquity, injustice and hardship, and turning them into people groping in darkness and ignorance, viz. fertile land which rendered its fruits to the rulers and men of power to extravagantly dissipate on their pleasure s and enjoyments, whims and desires, tyranny and aggression. The tribes living near these regions were fluctuate between Syria and Iraq, whereas those living inside Arabia were disunited and governed by tribal conflicts and racial and phantasmal disputes. They had neither a king to consume their independence nor a supporter to seek advice from, or depend upon, in hardships. The rulers of Hijaz, however, were greatly esteemed and respected by the Arabs, and were considered as rulers and servants of the phantasmal centre. Rulership of Hijaz was, in fact, a miscellanea of secular and official precedence as well as apparitional leadership.They ruled among the Arabs in the name of religious leadership and always monopolized the custodianship of the Holy Sanctuary and its neighbourhood. They looked after the interests of A l-Kabah visitors and were in charge of place Abrahams code into effect. They even had such offices and departments like those of the parliaments of today. However , they were too weak to rent the heavy burden, as this evidently came to light during the Abyssinian (Ethiopian) invasion. 15 RELIGIONS OF THE ARABS Most of the Arabs had complied with the call of Ishmael (Peace be upon him) , and professed the religion of his father Abraham (Peace be upon him) They had credence Allah, professed His Oneness a nd followed His religion a long time until they forgot part of what they had been reminded of.However, they still maintained such fundamental flavors such as monotheism as well as various other aspects of Abrahams religion, until the time when a chief of Khuzaa, namely Amr bin Luhai, who was renowned for righteousness, charity, fear and care for religion, and was granted unreserved love and obedience by his tribesmen, came back from a trip to Syria where he saw people latria idols, a phenomenon he canonic of and believed it to be righteous since Syria was the locus of Messengers and Scriptures, he brought with him an idol (Hubal) which h e placed in the middle of Al-Kabah and summoned people to worship it. quick enough, paganism spread all over Makkah and, thence, to Hijaz, people of Makkah being custodians of not only the Sacred House but the whole Haram as well. A great many idols, stance different names, were introduced into the area. An idol called Manat, for instance, was worshipped in a place known as Al-Mushallal near Qadid on the Red Sea. Another, Al-Lat in Taif, a third, Al-Uzza in the valley of Nakhlah, and so on and so forth. Polytheism prevailed and the number of idols increased everywhere in Hijaz.It was even mentioned that Amr bin Luhai, with the help of a jinn companion who told him that the idols of Noahs folk Wadd, Suwa, Yaguth, Yauk and Nasr were buried in Jeddah, dug them out and took them to Tihama. Upon voyage time, the idols were distributed among the tribes to take back home. Every tribe, and house, had their own idols, and the Sacred House was also overcrowded with them. On the Prophets conquest of Makkah, 360 idols were complete-base around Al-Kabah. He broke them down and had them removed and burned up. Polytheism and worship of idols became the most prominent feature of the religion of pre -Islam Arabs despite alleged profession of Abrahams religion. Traditions and ceremonies of the worship of their idols had been mostly created by Amr bin Luhai, and were deemed as good innovations rather than deviations from Abrahams religion.Some features of their worship of idols were Self-devotion to the idols, seeking refuge with them, acclamation of their names, occupational group for their help in hardship, and supplication to them for fulfilment of wishes, hopefully that the idols (i. e. , non- Judaic gods) would mediate with Allah for the fulfilment of peoples wishes. Performing pilgrimage to the idols, circumrotation round them, self-abasement and even prostrating themselves before them. Seeking favour of idols through various kinds of sacrifices and immolation s, which is mentioned in the Quranic verses And that which is sacrificed (slaughtered) on An -Nusub (stone-altars) 53 Allah also says erase not (O believers) of that (meat) on which Allahs report has not been pronounced (at the time of the slaughtering of the animal). 6121 Consecration of authorized(a) portions of food, drink, cattle, and crops to idols. Surprisingly enough, portions were also consecrated to Allah Himself, but people often found reasons to transfer parts of Allahs portion to idols, but never did the opposite. To this effect, the Quranic verses go And they assign to Allah a share of the tilth and cattle which He has created, and they say This is for Allah according to their pretending, and this is for our (Allahs so-called) partners. that the share of their (Allahs so-called) partners, reaches not Allah, while the share of Allah reaches their (Allahs so-called) partners.Evil is the way they judge. 6136 16 Currying favours with these idols through votive o fferings of crops and cattle, to which effect, the Quran goes And according to their pretending, they say that such and such cattle and crops are forbidden, and none should eat of them except those whom we allow. And (they say) there are cattle forbidden to be used for burden or any other work, and cattle on which (at slaughtering) the hit of Allah is not pronounced lying against Him (Allah). 6138 consignment of certain animals (such as Bahira, Saiba, Wasila and Hami) to idols, which meant sparing such animals from useful work for the sake of these heathen gods.Bahira, as reported by the long-familiar historian, Ibn Ish, was daughter of Saiba which was a egg-producing(prenominal) camel that gave birth to ten successive fe manful animals, but no male ones, was set chip off and forbidden to yoke, burden or being sheared off its wool, or milked (but for guests to drink from) and so was done to all her female offspring which were given the name Bahira, after having their ears sl it. The Wasila was a female sheep which had ten successive female daughters in five pregnancies. all new births from this Wasila were assigned only for male people. The Hami was a male camel which produced ten liberalist females, and was thus similarly forbidden. In mention of this, the Quranic verses go Allah has not instituted things like Bahira ( a she-camel whose milk was spared for the idols and nobody was allowed to milk it) or a Saiba (a she camel let loose for free pasture for their false gods, e. g. idols, etc. , and othing was allowed to be c arried on it), or a Wasila (a she-camel set free for idols because it has given birth to a she-camel at its first manner of speaking and then again gives birth to a she-camel at its second delivery) or a Ham (a stallion-camel freed from work for their idols, after it had finished a number of copulations assigned for it, all these animals were liberated in honour of idols as practised by pagan Arabs in the pre Islamic period). But those who disbelieve, invent lies against Allah, and most of them have no understanding. 5103 Allah also says And they say What is in the bellies of such and such cattle (milk or foetus) is for our males alone, and forbidden to our females (girls and women), but if it is born dead, then all have shares therein. 6139 It has been genuinely reported that such superstitions were first invented by Amr bin Luhai.The Arabs believed that such idols, or heathen gods, would bring them nearer to Allah, lead them to Him, and mediate with Him for their sake, to which effect, the Quran goes We worship them only that they may bring us near to Allah. 393, and And they worship anyhow Allah things that hurt them not, nor profit them, and they say These are our intercessors with Allah. 1018 Another divinatory tradition among the Arabs was modeling of Azlam (i. e. featherless cursors which were of three kinds one masking yes, another no and a third was blank) which they used to do in case of serious matters like travel, marriage and the like. If the lot showed yes, they would do, if no, they would delay for the next year.Other kinds of Azlam were cast for water, blood-money or showed from you, not from you, or Mulsaq (consociated). In cases of doubt in filiation they would revivify to the idol of Hubal, with a hundred-came l gift, for the arrow caster. Only the arrows would then decide the sort of relationship. If the arrow showed (from you), then it was decided that the child belonged to the tribe if it showed (from others), he would then be regarded as an ally, but if (consociated) appeared, the person would retain his position but with no lineage or alliance contract. This was very much like gambling and arrow-shafting whereby they used to divide the meat of the camels they slaughtered according to this tradition.Moreover, they used to have a deep conviction in the tidings of soothsayers, diviners and astrologists. A soothsayer used to traffic in the business of pr ognostic future events and claim knowledge of buck private secrets and having jinn subordinates who would communicate the news to him. Some soothsayers claimed that they could queer the unknown by means of a granted power, while other diviners boasted they could pause the secrets through a cause-and-effect-inductive process that would lead to detecting a stolen c ommodity, location of a theft, a stray animal, and the like. The astrologer belonged to a third category who used to observe the stars and calculate their movements and orbits whereby he would yell the future.Lending credence to this news constituted a clue to their conviction that attached special significance to the movements of particular stars with regard to rainfall. The belief in signs as betokening future events, was, of course common among the Arabians. Some days and months and particular animals were regarded as ominous. They also believed that the soul of a murdered person would fly in the wilderness and would never rest at rest until revenge was 17 taken. credulity was rampant. Should a deer or bird, when released, turn right then what they embarked on would be regarded auspicious, otherwise they would get pessimistic and refuse from pursuing it.People of pre -Islamic period, whilst believing in superstition, they still retained some of the Abrahamic traditions such as devotion to the Holy Sanctuary, circumambulation, observance of pilgrimage, the scout on Arafah and offering sacrifices, all of these were discovered fully despite some innovations that vitiated these holy rituals. Quraish, for example, out of arrogance, feeling of favorable position to other tribes and pride in their custodianship of the Sacred House, would refrain from going to Arafah with the crowd, instead they would stop short at Muzdalifah. The Noble Quran rebuked and told them Then depart from the place whence all the people depart. 2199 Another heresy, deeply established in their social tradition, dictated t hat they would not eat dried yoghurt or cooked fat, nor would they enter a tent made of camel hair or seek shade unless in a house of adobe bricks, so long as they were connected to the intention of pilgrimage. They also, out of a deeply-rooted misconception, denied pilgrims, other than Makkans, access to the food they had brought when they wanted to make pilgrimage or lesser pilgrimage. They legitimate pilgrims coming from outside Makkah to circumambulate Al-Kabah in Quraish uniform clothes, but if they could not afford them, men were to do so in a state of nudity, and women with only some piece of cloth to hide their groins. Allah says in this concern O Children of Adam behave your adornment (by wearing your clean clothes), while praying and going round (the Tawaf of) the Kabah. 731If men or women were bighearted enough to go round Al-Kabah in their clothes, they had to discard them after circumambulation for good. When the Makkans were in a pilgrimage consecration state, th ey would not enter their houses through the doors but through holes they used to dig in the back walls. They used to regard such behaviour as deeds of piety and god-fearing. This practice was prohibited by the Quran It is not Al-Birr (piety, righteousness, etc. ) that you enter the houses from the back but Al-Birr (is the quality of the one) who fears Allah. So enter houses through their proper doors, and fear Allah that you may be successful. 2189 Such was the religious life in Arabia, polytheism, idolatry, and superstition.Judaism, Christianity, Magianism and Sabianism, however, could find their ways considerably into Arabia. The migration of the Jews from Palestine to Arabia passed through two phases first, as a result of the pressure to which they were exposed, the dying of the their temple, and taking most of them as captives to Babylon, at the hand of the King Bukhtanassar. In the year B. C. 587 some Jews left Palestine for Hijaz and settled in the northern areas whereof. The second phase started with the Roman occupation of Palestine under the leadership of Roman Buts in 70 A. D. This resulted in a tidal roll out of Jewish migration into Hijaz, and Yathrib, Khaibar and Taima, in particular.Here, they made proselytes of several tribes, built forts and castles, and lived in villages. Judaism managed to play an Copernican role in the pre -Islam political life. When Islam dawned on that land, there had already been several famous Jewish tribes Khabeer, Al-Musta liq, An-Nadeer, Quraizah and Qainuqa. In some versions, the Jewish tribes counted as many as twenty. Judaism was introduced into Yemen by someone called Asad Abi Karb. He had gone to fight in Yathrib and there he embraced Judaism and then went back taking with him two rabbis from Bani Quraizah to instruct thpeople of Yemen in this new religion. Judaism found a fertile body politic there to propagate and gain adherents.After his death, his son Yusuf Dhu Nawas rose to power, attacked the Christ ian community in Najran and ordered them to embrace Judaism. When they refused, he ordered that a pit of fire be dug and all the Christians indiscriminately be dropped to burn therein. Estimates say that between 20-40 thousand Christians were killed in that human massacre. The Quran related part of that story in Al-Buruj (zodiacal signs) Chapter. Christianity had first made its appearance in Arabia following the institution of the Abyssinian (Ethiopian) and Roman colonists into that country. The Abyssinian (Ethiopian) colonizatio n forces in federation with Christian missions entered Yemen as a retributive reaction for the iniquities of Dhu Nawas, and started vehemently to propagate their faith ardently.They even built a church service and called it Yemeni Al-Kabah with the aim of directing the Arab pilgrimage caravans towards Yemen, and then made an attempt to powderise the Sacred House in Makkah. Allah, the Almighty, however did punish them and made an example of them here a nd hereafter. A Christian missionary called Fimion, and known for his ascetic behaviour and working miracles, had similarly infiltrated into Najran. There he called people to Christianity, and by virtue of his honesty and truthful devotion, he managed to persuade them to respond positively to his invitation and embrace Christianity. The principal tribes that embraced Christianity were Ghassan, Taghlib, Tai and some Himyarite kings as well as other tribes living on the borders of the Roman Empire. 18Magianism was also pop among the Arabs living in the neighbourhood of Persia, Iraq, Bahrain, Al-Ahsa and some areas on the Arabian Gulf coast. Some Yemenis are also reported to have professed Magianism during the Persian occupation. As for Sabianism, excavations in Iraq revealed that it had been familiar amongst Kaldanian folks, the Syrians and Yemenis. With the advent of Judaism and Christianity, however, Sabianism began to give way to the new religions, although it retained some foll owers coalesce or adjacent to the Magians in Iraq and the Arabian Gulf. THE RELIGIOUS SITUATION Such was the religious life of the Arabians before the advent of Islam.The role that the religions prevalent played was so marginal, in fact it was next to nothing. The polytheists, who faked Abrahamism, were so far detached from its precepts, and totally oblivious of its internal good manners. They plunged into disobedience and ungodliness, and developed certain suspicious religious superstitions that managed to leave a serious impact on the religious and socio -political life in the whole of Arabia. Judaism turned into abominable hypocrisy in alliance with hegemony. Rabbis turned into lords to the exclusion of the Lord. They got involved in the practice of dictatorial subjection of people and calling their subordinates to account for the least word or idea.Their sole target turned into acquisition of wealth and power even if it were at the risk of losing their religion, or the take of atheism and disbelief. Christianity likewise opened its doors large-minded to polytheism, and got too difficult to compre hend as a heavenly religion. As a religious practice, it developed a sort of peculiar medley of man and God. It exercised no bearing whatsoever on the souls of the Arabs who professed it simply because it was transfer to their style of life and did not have the least relationship with their p